Learning history in the perspective of language involves the aspects of history itself and linguistic aapects. It does not only about a language but also how people work with the language in their society in that time. To examine the students knowledge and experience in the history of English language, they have to do several questions in this link. Please open the link to do your mid term test. Then, you have to put the answers in this blog's comment column at least at 23.59 pm on today.
Name : Lala Rosdiana
ReplyDeleteNIM : 191230163
Class : TBI 6E
Midterm : History of English
1. Why do people use English as a lingua franca language? Explain your opinion based on the historical perspective!
---I think the use of English as an international language is based on the history of British colonialism. England, which had the widest colony, influenced the expansion of language spoken by the colonized nations, as quoted from Multicultural Education by Ainul Yaqin. In the British colonies, English evolved as it was used in discussions of peace, religion, trade, migration, ideas, books, and so on. English-speaking soldiers, colonists, and sailors who spread in these areas helped spread the use of the English language. Therefore, on the other hand, countries that were never colonized by Britain, or colonized by other nations such as Spain, the Netherlands, Portugal, and France were not as fast as the British colonies to adopt the use of this language.
---In western Africa, for example, English has been used as the primary language of communication or lingua franca since the arrival of the British there. International trade and anti-slavery movements then also encouraged the English language to spread widely throughout the West African peninsula, as quoted from the book English: The Legacy of New Form of Imperialism by Aziza Restu Febrianto.
The use of English and other local languages by the community later gave rise to a new type of English with its own characteristics, such as English Pidgins and Creoles. Thus, people continue to use English, although it is slightly different.
2. What factors do people divide the history of language into some stages such as old English, middle English and modern English? Then, describe them relating to the changes of linguistic aspects.
***The factors that cause people to divide English into three stages are because of internal and external factors such as historical factors including conquest or colonization and then there are political, social and cultural problems. In addition, because it has undergone evolution, of course English in these three periods has differences and must be separated according to the times.
English as we know it today has a very long history of formation and evolution. It is estimated that more than 1500 years of the evolution of the English language took place. Historians divide this period of English evolution into three periods, namely the Old English period, the Middle English period (Middle English or Medieval English), and the Modern English period (Modern English).
A. Old English
---Old English is the language brought by the Anglo-Saxon people who invaded the British Isles. These Anglo-Saxons are Germanic speakers. That's why it's not surprising that Old English grammar is similar to Germanic. At that time, English was called English. English was written using runes instead of the Latin script we know today.
--Here is a brief explanation of Old English grammar:
1) Noun (Noun)
--Nouns in Old English have five grammatical cases (nominative, accusative, dative, genitive, and instrumental), three genders (masculine, feminine, and neutral), and two numbers (singular and plural, and the form strong or weak).
2) Adjective (Adjective)
--Old English adjectives must match the noun. For this reason, before using adjectives in Old English, we must first identify the gender and number of the noun. Adjectives have strong and weak endings. Weak suffixes are used together with the definite or possessive of the determinant.
3) Pronoun (Pronoun)
--Just like adjectives, the use of pronouns in English must also match the noun.
4) Verb (Verb)
--Old English verbs conjugate three people (first, second, and third person), two numbers (singular and plural), two tenses (present and past), three moods (indicative, subjunctive, and imperative), and two changes (strong and weak). Verbs also have two forms infinitive and participle. Just like modern English, the use of verbs in Old English must also be in accordance with the subject.
CONTINUED BELOW
B. Middle English
ReplyDelete***Middle English began to emerge when the Normans invaded. During this period, English underwent significant changes in vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation, and writing. During this period, some grammars in Old English were simplified or even eliminated altogether. Middle English adopted some vocabulary from Norman French. This is mainly vocabulary in the fields of politics, law, religion, and the arts. Meanwhile, everyday English still uses vocabulary adopted from Germanic language with the influence of Old Norse.
Let's see a brief description of Middle English grammar below:
1) Noun (Noun)
---Just like Old English, Middle English also recognizes two numbers in nouns, namely singular and plural, and strong and weak. Initially, Middle English had four case grammars, namely nominative, accusative, dative, and genitive. But over time, the dative case is no longer used, while the genitive case is still used but rarely. Compared to the more complex Old English, Middle English only has two endings for nouns, namely –es or –s for strong nouns, and –en or –n for weak nouns.The use of gender for nouns in Middle English is also reduced.
2) Pronoun (Pronoun)
---Pronouns in Middle English are mostly derived from Old English, except for third-person plural pronouns borrowed from Old Norse.
3) Verb (Verb)
---Verbs have endings that must be adjusted to the subject, tenses, and strong or weak forms. For the present tense with strong and weak verbs, the ending –e is for the first-person singular subject. The suffix –en is for first-person plural subjects. The ending –st or –est is for the second person subject. The ending –eþ is for the third person subject. For past tenses with weak verbs, the endings used are –ede, -ed, -de, -e, -t, or –te. As for the strong form of the verb, the stem vowel is changed. For example, singen becomes songen. These strong and weak verbs will later be known as irregular verbs and regular verbs in Modern English.
C. Modern English
***Modern English or New English (New English) began with the Great Vowel Shift which made the English pronunciation system change significantly. Early 17th century texts, such as those by William Shakespeare and the King James Bible, use a vocabulary different from that of the earlier period of English. The vocabulary contained in the text is considered to be the beginning of the Modern English period. In this period, the use of second person pronouns, such as thou, thee, thine, thy began to be used and was quite popular.
Here are some of the changes that have occurred in Modern English:
• Verb (Verb)
===Starting with the terms regular and irregular verbs (regular and irregular verbs).The appearance of the mandatory subjunctive or the removal of the -s ending in the verb for the third person singular in the subjunctive sentence. The use of auxiliary verbs “wanna”, “gotta”, “gonna”. The use of verbs with more than one word, for example: used to, had better, ought to, etc. The use of progressive verbs in the present perfect and past perfect.
• Pronoun (Pronoun)
===The difference between using "whom" and "who" is missing. The use of “they" as a pronoun of a singular gender neutral noun. Put adverbs of frequency in front of the auxiliary verb
CONTINUED BELOW
NUMBER 3
3. Compare the historical and lingual aspects in old English and middle English. What are their differences in those fields?
ReplyDelete Old English (450 AD - 1100 AD / Middle 5th century to Middle 11th century)
---The origins of English lie in West Germanic languages which were brought to England when Germanic languages invaded this great continent. The language was a variety of different dialects because there were three most important tribes that invaded England at that time. Anglos, Saxons, and Jutes are these tribes and the dialect of the language used by them became the dialect of the original English.
---Examples of Old English
■ The Lord Prayer
Fæder ure şu şe eart on heofonum,
si şin nama gehalgod.
to becume şin rice,
gewurşe ğin willa,
on eorğan swa swa on heofonum.
urne gedæghwamlican hlaf syle us todæg,
and forgyf us ure gyltas,
swa swa we forgyfağ urum gyltendum.
and ne gelæd şu us on costnunge,
ac alys us of yfele soşlice.
Middle English (1100 AD-1500 AD / late 11th century to late 15th century)
---In the eleventh century, there were various Norman conquests in English territory, and this brought a big difference in the development of the English language. The Duke of Normandy, William, the conqueror, conquered England in 1066 and, with this conquest, many new impressions were introduced into the English language. Most important and most important is the impression of French mixed with the English spoken at the time. This is why modern English today can be seen as having its roots in French.
●Examples of Middle English
The Lord Prayer
Oure fadir şat art in heuenes
halwid be şi name;
şi reume or kyngdom come to be.
Be şi wille don
in herşe as it is dounin heuene.
yeue to us today oure eche dayes bred.
And foryeue to us oure dettis şat is oure synnys
as we foryeuen to oure dettouris şat is to men şat han synned in us.
And lede us not into temptacion
but delyuere us from euyl.
■I think the main difference between Old English and Middle English is the colonial influence on the language itself. As we know the root of Old English is West Germanic. This language has many Germanic words, and its grammar is closer to that of German and Latin. while Middle English adopted some vocabulary from Norman French. This is mainly vocabulary in the fields of politics, law, religion, and the arts. Meanwhile, everyday English still uses vocabulary adopted from Germanic language with the influence of Old Norse. What is most important during the Middle English period is the impression of French mixed with the English spoken at the time which is a great difference between Old English and Middle English.
FINISH
THANK YOU
Name : Muhammad Ikhwan
ReplyDeleteNIM : 191230156
Class : TBI 6E
1. People use English as a lingua franca because it takes a common language so that everyone in this world can communicate in one language so that people from different countries can still understand when communicating. Since ancient Rome, it was necessary to have a language that many people could understand.
It is called the lingua franca. Lingua franca is the language used to communicate between people from various backgrounds.
At first, this lingua franca differed in each region, for example, countries in Southeast Asia used Arabic from the Middle East during the 7th century. Then in the 18th century scientists studied Latin as the lingua franca. And during the era of European expansion, Portuguese became a common language in Asia, Africa and Japan. English is the oldest language in the world and emerged around 8 AD. Then it experienced rapid development until it became an international language or lingua franca.
2. The factors that cause people to divide English into three stages are because of internal and external factors.
a. Old English
The Old English (OE) period can be regarded as starting around AD 450, with the arrival of West Germanic settlers (Angles, Saxons and Jutes) in southern Britain. They brought with them dialects closely related to the continental language varieties which would produce modern German, Dutch and Frisian.
This Germanic basis for English can be seen in much of our everyday vocabulary – compare heart (OE heorte), come (OE cuman) and old (OE eald) with German Herz, kommen and alt.
Many grammatical features also date back to this time: irregular verbs such as drink ~ drank ~ drunk (OE drincan ~ dranc ~ (ge)druncen) parallel German trinken ~ trank ~ getrunken. Similarly, many OE pronunciations are preserved in modern spellings e.g. knight (OE cniht, German Knecht), in which k would have been pronounced and gh sounded like ch in Scots loch.
b. Middle English
In Middle English we see the influence of Old Norse and Norman French coming to the front. Perhaps one of the significant influences of Old Norse on English was on the syntax and grammatical ordering of words. Just as the Vikings colonised Britain, so too the patterns of English grammar have much to thank north Germanic tongues, like Danish or Icelandic.
In ME, changes in the pronunciation of unstressed syllables, mainly occurring at the ends of words, caused most inflections to merge indistinguishably, or be dropped altogether. This inflectional breakdown could have created ambiguity (e.g. wanted man find), but speakers compensated by using more rigid word order (subject – verb – object, usually), among other strategies.
Another important feature of the early ME period was the influence of Norman (and later, central) French, following the Norman conquest of 1066. French dominance and prestige in such contexts as the royal court, law, the church and education encouraged extensive borrowing of vocabulary e.g. French words for farmed animals pork, beef and mutton (modern French porc, bœuf and mouton) were adopted alongside native words swine, cow and sheep.
The borrowed words came to signify only the meat of these animals, mainly eaten by wealthier French speakers, whereas the words inherited from OE came to refer only to the living animals. Norman scribes also influenced the way English was written, respelling words using conventions from French; thus OE îs became ice, cwçn became queen. However, by the 14th and 15th centuries, French influence in Britain had begun to wane, being replaced for many purposes by English.
c. Modern English
ReplyDeleteModern English (ModE) can be regarded externally as starting with the introduction of printing. Caxton’s selection of an East Midlands/London variety of English for the first printed books at the end of the 15th century contributed to the development of a standardised variety of the language, with fixed spelling and punctuation conventions and accepted vocabulary and grammatical forms.
The perception of this standard variety as correct, ‘good’ English was also supported by attempts at codification, notably Johnson’s dictionary and many prescriptive grammars of the 18th century. The vocabulary of English was consciously elaborated as it came to be used for an increasing variety of purposes, including translations of classical works rediscovered in the Renaissance, a burgeoning creative literature, and the description of new scientific activities. Thousands of words were borrowed from Latin and Greek in this period e.g. education, metamorphosis, critic, conscious.
For instance, the vowel in caas ‘case’ was simply a longer version of the vowel in blak ‘black’; similarly mete ‘meat’ (long vowel) and hell (short vowel), or fine (long) and pit (short). In early ModE, people began to pronounce the long vowels differently from the corresponding short vowels: long e ended up sounding like long i, leaving a gap in the sound system; this was filled by shifting the pronunciation of long a to sound like long e, and so on.
3.
• Old English
Old English or Anglo-Saxon as it is sometimes called was originally a mix of Germanic dialects (most closely related to Frisian, a little more distantly to Dutch, and more distantly to German and then the rest of the Germanic languages like Swedish, Icelandic, etc.), including those spoken by the Angles and the Saxons.
• The Example of Old English
Here is a piece of text from Aelfric’s ‘Homily on St Gregory the Great’ which tells the famous story of the pope sending missionaries to convert the Anglo-Saxons:
Eft he axode, hu ðære ðeode nama wære þe hi of comon. Him wæs geandwyrd, þæt hi Angle genemnode wæron. Þa cwæð he, “Rihtlice hi sind Angle gehatene, for ðan ðe hi engla wlite habbað, and swilcum gedafenað þæt hi on heofonum engla geferan beon.”
• Middle English
In Middle English we see the influence of Old Norse and Norman French coming to the front. Perhaps one of the significant influences of Old Norse on English was on the syntax and grammatical ordering of words. Just as the Vikings colonised Britain, so too the patterns of English grammar have much to thank north Germanic tongues, like Danish or Icelandic.
• The Example of Middle English
English, Danish and Icelandic have similar patternings for the example phrase:
“I will never see you again”
= Danish “Jeg vil aldrig se dig igen”
= Icelandic “Ég mun aldrei sjá þig aftur”
…whereas in Dutch and German the main verb is placed at the end (e.g. Dutch “Ik zal je nooit weer zien”; German “Ich werde dich nie wieder sehen”, literally, “I will you never again see”).
• Modern English
Modern English is widely regarded to begin in the 1500s and reach up to the present day. It takes its Germanic and Norse grammatical roots and pronouns and prepositions, adds in the extensive French and Latin-influenced vocabulary and combines this with an overwhelming harmonisation of vowel sounds, which approach something like the English sounds we know today.
• The Example of Modern English
The poetry of Shakespeare. Not only would it rhyme to a sixteenth century ear, but it also rhymes to a twenty-first century ear; and that is thanks the gradual standardisation of the many different vowel sounds that influenced the language’s composition
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ReplyDeleteNurmala Hayati
ReplyDelete191230145
TBI 6E
1. At first, this lingua franca differed in each region, for example, countries in Southeast Asia used Arabic from the Middle East during the 7th century. Then in the 18th century scientists studied Latin as the lingua franca. And during the era of European expansion, Portuguese became a common language in Asia, Africa and Japan. It has now been agreed that English is a common language or lingua franca.
In addition, Britain is the ruler of the world who self-determined to become the world's police and at that time the US was still not born. British colonies at that time also many such as Canada, South Africa, India, New Zealand, Thailand and others. Therefore, these countries inevitably have to use English to communicate.
The US used to be a British colony and a lot of British people came to America and became immigrants. Not only the British, the US is a land of immigrants who need a common language. The stronger this superpower, the more patented English is.
2. Apart from internal changes that happened regardless of any external factors (wereman -> man, wifman -> woman, man - man). There are two major factors that caused English to drastically change: the introduction of Old Norse words and syntax due to the Danelaw and the introduction of French by the Normans post-1066.
After the Danish had set up a border separating their British territory from the unconquered Anglo-Saxon kingdoms in the west, trade between the two sides was a common occurance. both Old Norse and Old English were related and came from the same geographic region, but Old Norse had a slightly (note: slightly, Old Norse grammar was still complex) less complicated grammar than Old English due to their use of prepositional phrases. due to sound shifts in Old English caused by Old Norse, some words began to become confusing (suffixes that implied plurality began to sound like suffixes that implied ownership, etc), so Old English adopted Old Norse prepositions in order to mitigate.
But the biggest ones, however, and one we can readily see today, is the influence of Norman French. today, French and Latinate words make up the majority of the English language, despite the fact that English is a Germanic language. this is because of one man and one battle: William the Conqueror and the Battle of Hastings in 1066. with his victory over the English in this battle, William was able to conquer the entirety of England. and because William spoke Norman French and so did his followers, the language of the upper classes, and thus the language of educated folk, became French. even today, we are taught that words of Romance origin are the mark of someone who’s educated, and most words related to high culture, justice, and government come from Norman French.
3. Comparison Between Old English and Middle English
ReplyDelete* Old English
> Classification:
Old English can further be classified into three more sub-divisions- Prehistoric, Early Old England, and Late Old English.
> Period:
It is recorded in history that Old English was spoken from about the 5th century till around the 12th century.
> Origin:
Old English is the earliest language recorded in history books to be ever spoken. We are still not sure how it came into being.
> Word order:
The word order of old english was not fixed
> Standardization:
Old English has never been standardized. Middle English was standardized ages after
- Middle English
> Classification:
Having developed from Late Old English, Middle English grew popular and soon people started to compose in Middle English. Later the Late Middle English came to be known as Early Modern English
> Period:
Middle English came into being from the second half of the 11th century while the Old English was still in use till the last parts of the 15th century.
> Origin:
Middle English came into being from the Late Old English after the occurrence of the conquest of the Normans.
> Word order:
The word order of Middle English was almost fixed.
> Standardization:
Middle English was standardized ages after its existence.
#Main Differences Between Old English and Middle English
- The main difference between Old English and Middle English lies in their different influence. Latin, Celtic, and Norse were the three languages that heavily influenced Old English. However, Middle English was influenced by the French language.
- Old English was in no way of what you’d call a monolithic language- the language had vast variations depending on the different regions it spread to. However, the four main variations were West Saxon, Kentish, Northumbrian, and Mercian. On the other hand, Middle English, in the beginning, had its share of different dialects. But, after a while, it became the language in which the artists composed, and hence got standardized.
- Old English was way more complex as compared to Middle English. The verbs and nouns in Old English had many forms which became unnecessary complex for people. However, Middle English was simpler in comparison to Old English.
- Old English had very little or no resemblance to Modern English, but Middle English resembled Modern English to a great extent.
- The vocabulary of Old English had many German and Latin words in it, but the Middle English vocabulary mainly had French words, and concepts and terms like law and religion came into being.
- There were a lot of silent letters in the alphabet system of Old English. In the case of Middle English, the language at first had no silent letters, but later on, the ‘e’ became silent in some situations.
- The cases were mainly instrumental in Old English. In Middle English, we see a shift towards different prepositional constructions.
Name : Rifatul Muftiah
ReplyDeleteNIM : 191230171
Class : TBI 6E
History of English
1. My opinion At first, English was used by native speakers in the British Isles, which politically we know as the British Empire. As time goes by, we know the colonial period which started when the colonists explored various regions to other continents such as America and Africa or, then made colonies for economic purposes such as commodities that were not available in Europe and power. From there, England had an influence on the lives of its colonies, especially in the spread of the English language.
It continued when the invention of the steam engine by (one of them) James Watt marked the revival of the Industrial Revolution era in England. Plus at that time England was in the golden period of its empire, therefore it could easily instill influence and hegemony over its colonies.
Britain continued to expand its territory into Asia and Australia, and with its wide-spreading power, it is not surprising that the impact was also large. Such as in transacting and seeking trade advantages which require other countries to be interested or even forced to communicate using English. The end of the 19th century was the end of the era of the heyday of the British empire. Although many of its colonies have become independent or have become commonwealth countries, the magnitude of the influence created by Britain has left advanced civilizations and new cultures, so that in the future we agree on English as an international language, even becoming the official language or the second language of its former colonies. At the end of the 19th century, an artificial language was created which functions as a lingua franca in international communication
2. English as we know it today has a very long history of formation and evolution. It is estimated that more than 1500 years of the evolution of the English language took place. Historians divide this period of English evolution into three periods, namely the Old English period, the Middle English period (Middle English or Medieval English), and the Modern English period (Modern English). Due to its evolution, of course English in these three periods has differences. the Middle English period (Middle England or Medieval England), and the Modern English period.
ReplyDeleteHere is a brief explanation of Old English grammar:
• Noun (Noun)
Nouns in Old English have five grammatical cases (nominative, accusative, dative, genitive, and instrumental), three genders (masculine, feminine, and neutral), and two numbers (singular and plural, and the form strong or weak).
• Adjective (Adjective)
Old English adjectives must match the noun. For this reason, before using adjectives in Old English, we must first identify the gender and number of the noun. Adjectives have strong and weak endings. Weak suffixes are used together with the definite or possessive of the determinant.
• Pronoun (Pronoun)
Just like adjectives, the use of pronouns in English must also match the noun.
• Verbs (Verbs)
Old English verbs conjugate three people (first, second, and third person), two numbers (singular and plural), two tenses (present and past), three moods (indicative, subjunctive, and imperative), and two changes ( strong and weak). Verbs also have two forms infinitive and participle. Just like modern English, the use of verbs in Old English must also be in accordance with the subject.
Let's see a brief description of Middle English grammar below:
• Noun (Noun)
Just like Old English, Middle English also recognizes two numbers in nouns, namely singular and plural, and strong and weak. Initially, Middle English had four case grammars, namely nominative, accusative, dative, and genitive. But over time, the dative case is no longer used, while the genitive case is still used but rarely.
Compared to the more complex Old English, Middle English only has two endings for nouns, namely –es or –s for strong nouns, and –en or –n for weak nouns.
The use of gender for nouns in Middle English is also reduced.
• Pronoun (Pronoun)
Pronouns in Middle English are mostly derived from Old English, except for third-person plural pronouns borrowed from Old Norse.
• Verbs (Verbs)
Verbs have endings that must be adjusted to the subject, tenses, and strong or weak forms. For the present tense with strong and weak verbs, the ending –e is for the first-person singular subject. The suffix –en is for first-person plural subjects. The ending –st or –est is for the second person subject. The ending –eþ is for the third person subject.
For past tenses with weak verbs, the endings used are –ede, -ed, -de, -e, -t, or –te. As for the strong form of the verb, the stem vowel is changed. For example, singen becomes songen.
These strong and weak verbs will later be known as irregular verbs and regular verbs in Modern English.
Here are some of the changes that have occurred in Modern English:
• Verbs (Verbs)
Starting with the terms regular and irregular verbs (regular and irregular verbs).
The appearance of the mandatory subjunctive or the removal of the -s ending in the verb for the third person singular in the subjunctive sentence.
The use of auxiliary verbs “wanna”, “gotta”, “gonna”.
The use of verbs with more than one word, for example: used to, had better, ought to, etc.
The use of progressive verbs in the present perfect and past perfect.
• Pronoun (Pronoun)
The difference between using "whom" and "who" is missing.
The use of "they" as a pronoun of a singular gender neutral noun.
Put adverbs of frequency in front of the auxiliary verb.
3. Old English is the language brought by the Anglo-Saxon people who invaded the British Isles. These Anglo-Saxons are Germanic speakers. That's why it's not surprising that Old English grammar is similar to Germanic. At that time, English was called English. Englisc was written using runes instead of the Latin script we know today.
ReplyDeleteExample :
Fæder ure şu şe eart on heofonum,
si şin nama gehalgod.
to becume şin rice,
gewurşe ğin willa,
on eorğan swa swa on heofonum.
urne gedæghwamlican hlaf syle us todæg,
and forgyf us ure gyltas,
swa swa we forgyfağ urum gyltendum.
and ne gelæd şu us on costnunge,
ac alys us of yfele soşlice.
Middle English began to emerge when the Normans invaded. During this period, English underwent significant changes in vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation, and writing. During this period, some grammars in Old English were simplified or even eliminated altogether. Middle English adopted some vocabulary from Norman French. This is mainly vocabulary in the fields of politics, law, religion, and the arts. Meanwhile, everyday English still uses vocabulary adopted from Germanic language with the influence of Old Norse.
Example :
Oure fadir şat art in heuenes
halwid be şi name;
şi reume or kyngdom come to be.
Be şi wille don
in herşe as it is dounin heuene.
yeue to us today oure eche dayes bred.
And foryeue to us oure dettis şat is oure synnys
as we foryeuen to oure dettouris şat is to men şat han synned in us.
And lede us not into temptacion
but delyuere us from euyl
Modern English or New English (New English) began with the Great Vowel Shift which made the English pronunciation system change significantly. Early 17th century texts, such as those by William Shakespeare and the King James Bible, use a vocabulary different from that of the earlier period of English. The vocabulary contained in the text is considered to be the beginning of the Modern English period. In this period, the use of second person pronouns, such as thou, thee, thine, thy began to be used and was quite popular.
Example :
Our father which art in heaven,
hallowed be thy name.
Thy kingdom come.
Thy will be done
in earth as it is in heaven.
Give us this day our daily bread.
And forgive us our trespasses
as we forgive those who trespass against us.
And lead us not into temptation,
but deliver us from evil.
That's a brief explanation of the differences between Old English and Modern English. In essence, over time, English experienced simplification and fusion in its grammar. In addition, English has also experienced changes in pronunciation and writing. English will still evolve as long as humans who use it persist.
NAME : RISKA AMALIA
ReplyDeleteNIM : 181230159
CLASS : TBI 6E
1. Why do people use English as a lingua franca language ? explain your opinion based on the historical perspective !
Because English is the oldest language and the language is easily understood by other countries. and looking at it from a historical point of view, English was originally used by native speakers in the British Isles, which we know politically as the British Empire. As time goes by, they know the colonial period, which began when the colonists explored various regions to other continents such as America and Africa, then made colonies for economic purposes such as commodities that were not available in Europe and power. From there, England had an influence on the lives of its colonies, especially in the spread of the English language. It continued when the invention of the steam engine by (one of them) James Watt marked the revival of the Industrial Revolution era in England. This makes England a modern industrial-based country that has an impact on the political, economic and social fields of other countries. Plus at that time England was in the golden period of its empire, therefore it could easily instill influence and hegemony over its colonies. And Britain continued to expand its territory into Asia and Australia, and with its wide-spreading power, it is not surprising that the impact was also large. Such as in transacting and seeking trade advantages which require other countries to be interested or even forced to communicate using English. And when the end of the 19th century was the end of the era of the heyday of the British empire. Although many of its colonies have become independent or become commonwealth countries, the great influence created by Britain has left advanced civilizations and new cultures. So that in the future we will agree on English as an international language, even becoming the official language or the second language of its former colonies. The agreement to make English an international language is not seen from the largest number of native speakers or the language that was created first. There is always a common interest that triggers the creation of a solution. Like the Malay language which became the lingua franca in the archipelago, or the Arabic language Fusha which became the lingua franca between the Arab tribes in pre-Islamic times.
Name : Ainun isnani
ReplyDeleteClass : TBI 6E
Nim : 191230151
1. Because English has become an international language, it has a long history. Since ancient Rome, it was necessary to have a language that many people could understand, so that people from different countries could understand when communicating. Now that language is called the lingua franca. Lingua franca is the language used to communicate between people from various backgrounds. Initially, each region had a different lingua franca. Then it was mutually agreed that English as a common language.
English is also the oldest language in the world and emerged around 8 AD. English also experienced rapid development so that it became an international language. Quoted by Wonderpolis, researchers trace the origins of English to three Germans, namely: Angles, Saxons, and Rami who invaded Great Britain in the 5th century.
2. The factors are :
A. Old English
Old English is the language brought by the Anglo-Saxon people who invaded the British Isles. These Anglo-Saxons are Germanic speakers. That's why it's not surprising that Old English grammar is similar to Germanic. At that time, English was called English. Englisc was written using runes instead of the Latin script we know today.
Here is a brief explanation of Old English grammar (grammar):
-Noun (Noun)
Nouns in Old English have five grammatical cases or grammatical cases (nominative, accusative, dative, genitive, and instrumental), three genders (masculine, feminine, and neutral), and two numbers or numerals (singular and plural, and forms strong or weak).
-Adjective (Adjective)
Old English adjectives must match the noun. For this reason, before using an adjective in Old English, we must first identify the gender and number of the noun. Adjectives have strong and weak endings. Weak suffixes are used together with the definite or possessive of the determinant.
-Pronoun (Pronoun)
Just like adjectives, the use of pronouns in English must also match the noun.
-Verb (Verb)
Old English verbs conjugate three persons (first, second, and third person), two numbers (singular and plural), two tenses (present and past), three moods (indicative, subjunctive, and imperative), and two changes ( strong and weak). Verb also has two forms infinitive and participle. Just like in modern English, the use of verbs in Old English must also be in accordance with the subject.
Name : Novi Puji Lestari
ReplyDeleteSRN : 191230144
1. Based on the historical perspective, English has spreaded to some area and etnich. It also spread and affected by some of cultures and the characteristic from many places. the English as the chosen medium of communication among people from different first languages. The unprecedented use of English as an international lingua franca, largely because of its relationship with the processes of globalisation from all era(old English, Middle English, Modern English and Early Modern English). It has led to the realization that conventional attitudes to English and approaches to its study need to be critically examined.
2. 2. People divided the history of English into some stages because there are some particular rule in each area of English whetear in semantic, linguistic, dialects, etc. Moreover, the insights about characteristic of English in each stage is so crucial for as the language learner especially for us who are giving to double down on linguistic world. We have to analyze the development from English structure form, not only from modern English but also in middle English and Old English. More than that,
and we can
begin to explain how it got to be as it is. For example, we can explain why
it is that we have such apparently crazy spelling, how it is that words come
into existence, in what stage it appear, why it is that sometimes we seem to have a choice of words
to express more or less the same thing (e.g. fortunate and lucky), where
the confusing apostrophe-s (e.g. student’s or students’) came from, why it
is that we don’t all talk like the Queen or the people on the BBC; and so
on. By looking at how English has changed, and the factors that have
influenced those changes, we can begin to answer questions like these.
3. There are some differences between historical and lingua aspects in old and middle English, they are :
-OLD ENGLISH (OE), running from about AD 450 to 1100.
However, the MIDDLE ENGLISH (ME)
period, approximately spanning the years 1100–1500.
- Old English is often dated from the arrival of Anglo-Saxon
settlers in 449. however, The Norman Conquest in
1066 is obviously important in defining the beginning of Middle English.
- . Some sounds of OE had
no letter counterpart, and so other solutions were found:
• [w], the first sound of wet, generally utilised the Runic symbol
(called ‘wynn’). [θ] and [ð], as in thin and the, were represented by the Runic
symbol (called ‘thorn’),
- In old English, Latin has long had a venerable tradition in European scholarship, as
well as in cultural and religious life, and English has repeatedly borrowed from it
throughout its history. These languages
therefore have an established association with social power, elevated social status and learning.
- However, - the culture of Middle English (ME) displaced by the Romance
influences of the Norman duchy and the Parisian court. And the Features often taken as characteristic of Middle English varieties had begun to emerge long before the
Conquest: reduction of inflectional paradigms, for example, had its roots in the ongoing syncretism of the OE period The events of 1066. Therefore did not so much begin a period of transformation as add another
dimension to the direction of ongoing linguistic (and indeed social) change in the
ME period.
- From the ME period, there are 5 dialects. They are : Northern, Midland (East and West),
South-Eastern and South-Western. Northern (derived from the OE
Northumbrian dialect).
- In early ME spelling, the three allophonic values of /g/ – [g], [γ] and [j] – were
represented by both g and yogh, . In general, the
graph g represented [g] (as in ME gome ‘man’), and [γ] and [j] (as in ME) and elde(n)). By late ME, [γ] was represented by gh and [j] by y, hence later ME
spelling of the latter two examples as knight ‘knight’ and yelde(n) ‘yield’, ‘give’.
2. The factors that influence the occurrence of the division of language history into three stages are:
ReplyDelete• Old English : Prior to AD 700, Germanic tribes were in constant battle for territory. They arrived in Great Britain, then called Britannia and drove out the Celtic tribes, even forcing some of them to flee to mainland Europe. first German tribes spoke languages such as Old Norse, Frankish, Frisian, Saxon, Anglian; all languages, which we can compare with Germanic dialects and early-stage English which do not yet exist. The origins of Old English are directly related to the migration flows of Germanic tribes, towards the English islands: the Angles, Saxons, Jutes, and Frisians. The Angles coined the terms "English" and "English". from there the Germanic Dialect mutated into Old English from 700 to AD 1100. The language was written first in the runic alphabet and then in Latin. The evolution of the Early English language is closely related to the story of the invasions of Great Britain, from the 8th and 9th centuries, especially the Old Norse (or Old Irish)-speaking Vikings. This dialect finds certain words that are still used today, such as “take, give, and skin”. Old Irish left its mark on English by influencing basic grammatical rules, such as "they, them, and their" and "-s" in the third person (singular).
• Middle English: Factors influencing this stage of Middle England were the aftermath of the Norman Conquest, the Battle of Hastings in 1066 and the growth of the Catholic Church. Middle English is a mixture of Latin, like Norman French and German, like Old Scandinavian, in terms of syntax and word order, particularly the placement of verbs in a sentence. We can compare the phrase structure of English with that of Danish and Irish, which are German in origin. And the Hundred Years' War (1337-1453) marked a turning point in the English language. This war between France and England sparked the need for a separate English identity, which influenced the language. During the war, all the nobles spoke French and were closely connected to the continent, many nobles having titles and lands in both. French was the language of the monarchy and the aristocracy, at the expense of English, which was spoken by the common people. However, in 1362, the English Parliament recognized English as the official language of the courts. King Henry IV of England who ruled at the time used French as his mother tongue and English as his second language, but later generations began to write official documents in English.
• Modern English: Modern English marks the structure of spelling and grammar, It is characterized by the increasing presence of vowels. English continued to evolve with the influence of Latin and Greek. Modern languages, such as French and Italian, have always influenced English, to the point that several writers attempted to launch a purification campaign in English, but to no avail. It wasn't until the late 18th century that the situation reversed and English took a bigger place in international business. And the expansion of the English language was marked by the colonization and growth of the British Empire. English extended to Ireland, where half the population at the end of the 18th century still spoke Irish. Today, 98% of Irish people speak English as their mother tongue. And until now modern English has become an international language that is used throughout the world as a lingua franca.
Name : Vanisa Nurul Fitri (191230148)
ReplyDeleteClass : TBI 6E
1. English fulfills the need for a global lingua franca for it has spread to large areas of the world due to colonisation and the widespread teaching of English as a foreign language, and has been used more widely in Europe due to the American and British victory in World War II, among other factors. Because of the use of English as a lingua franca in international trade and intercultural communication, native speakers of English are outnumbered by non-native speakers, which is a situation that is quite atypical for western European languages.[9] A consequence of this is a sense of ownership of the language which is shared by different communities. For instance, international communication via ELF has facilitated exchange between China and the rest of the world, thus sustaining international trade.[10] But once a language is appropriated by new communities, it is then adapted to their specific needs. Consequently, the English language is undergoing change, and this change is being brought about mostly by its non-native speakers.
This modern rush of language evolution is not just a product of the 21st century – our language has been evolving like a speeding train ever since the invention of speeding trains! Many of English’s earlier imported influences were scientific terms from Latin and Greek, and science once again contributed to the evolution of the language with the first Industrial Revolution (in the 18th and 19th centuries). This Industrial Revolution was a period of relentless invention, much of it occurring in Britain, and the language of this period spread throughout the world via Britain’s trading network, the increased accessibility of worldwide travel and migration, and the sharing of literature through industrial printing presses, thus cementing the dominance of English in the world’s most powerful corridors.
It is no surprise that English has become the global language of business – it was the central language of one of the most creative and innovative periods of world history, and it is now the dominant language of the ongoing technological revolution. For centuries, English evolved by absorbing the words of influential nations and their languages: as well as scientific, technical and medical terms from Latin and Greek, it adopted a whole host of words from French (following the Norman conquest of England in 1066) and the other Romance languages of Europe.
2. English has become the official language of many other countries that are not considered a mother tongue. It is the popularity of this language that sets it apart from many other languages spoken around the world. Apart from all this, English is also referred to as a global language spoken in all sects of life. However, with this comes another interesting fact that modern English, which can be spoken in this modern era, tends to be very different from what was spoken in the past. Now, speakers of this modern language cannot recognize the old version of this language. This is due to the fact that this language has a history of around 1700 years during which it can be classified into three categories, Old English, Middle English and Modern English. English has been divided into three most important periods starting from Old English to Middle English, and then to Modern English.
DeleteThere are several factors behind the language change. the cause of the change of a language comes both from internal, which is related to the nature of the language itself; and externally, caused by social and cultural changes in the speaking community. several causes of language change, namely: anatomy and 'ethnic character', climate and geography, substrata, functional needs, and convenience/simplicity. In tracing the development of English, basically it can be observed through three different periods.
The first period is called "Old English" (Old English) from 700-1100. This period is also known as the Anglo-Saxon period. The major literary work that emerged during this period was the epic poem Beowulf, written in AD 700.
The second period is called "Middle English" from 1100-1500. In this period the most important literary works are the poems by Chaucer, who died in 1400.
The last period is called "Modern English" from 1500-present. The literary works that emerged in this period ranged from the works produced by Spenser and Shakespeare to the writers who exist today (Alexander, 1960: 34-35). The evolution that occurred in the English language from one period to another was not a sudden and rapid change. However, the process of change occurs gradually over a long period of time and is generally unnoticed by the speaking community.
As generally happens in other languages in the world, changes in English include four things, namely (1) semantic changes, which are marked by the number of words that experience shifts in meaning and implications; (2) morphological, namely by the number of case endings and missing inflections; (3) phonetics, which is marked by the sharper difference between pronunciation and writing; and (4) syntax, namely with changes in the way words are combined into phrases or sentences. Morphological differences between Old English and Modern English are characterized by the presence of grammatical gender and a very complicated degree of inflection in nouns, adjectives, and demonstrative and interrogative pronouns. In Modern English the word class that seems to retain the most complex forms from its past is the personal pronouns (Pyles, 1964: 111). According to Baugh (1963: 67) what causes personal pronouns to retain a fairly complete inflection system from the past is their frequency of use and their important function of referring to specific referents when used. This paper will describe the development of personal pronouns in English by comparing their changes through three different periods, namely: Old English, Middle English, and Modern English. 2. Changes in English Personal Pronouns As already mentioned, when compared to other word class forms, English personal pronouns are the word classes that retain the most inflectional systems from their past in Modern English. However, this does not mean that personal pronouns have not changed at all in their development from ancient times to the present.
3. # The Old English (OE) period can be regarded as starting around AD 450, with the arrival of West Germanic settlers (Angles, Saxons and Jutes) in southern Britain. They brought with them dialects closely related to the continental language varieties which would produce modern German, Dutch and Frisian.This Germanic basis for English can be seen in much of our everyday vocabulary – compare heart (OE heorte), come (OE cuman) and old (OE eald) with German Herz, kommen and alt. Old English was spoken from mid 5th century to the mid-12th century. It was a West Germanic language of the 5th century. The origin of the old English started from ingvaeonic also called “Germanic of the North Sea”. Ingvaeonic was named after a West Germanic proto-tribe cultural group called Ingaevones. This language was a grouping of Old Frisian, Old Saxon and Old English. Later it developed into Anglo- Saxon language, the language spoken by people living in parts of modern England and Southeastern lands of Scotland. Anglo–Saxon was developed only after 7th century after Christianization. It was constantly influenced by many languages.
DeleteIt has three subdivisions, prehistoric- between c.450- 650.Early Old English between c.650- 900 and Late Old English between c.900-1066. Old English was influenced by Latin, Norse and Celtic. Latin influenced it in three periods, firstly, when the Anglo-Saxons went to Britain, secondly when the Latin speaking priests converted the Anglo- Saxons to Christianity and lastly when the Normans conquered England in 1066. The second language influencing old English was Norse; it began with the Scandinavian words being introduced after the Vikings invaded England in the 9th and 10th centuries. Celtic’s major influence was mainly on syntax and not on vocabulary.
Old English was not a monolithic language; it had multiple variations in different regions. It had developed from languages and dialects of many different tribes; each dialect was spoken by independent kingdom. There were four main dialects, Mercian (dialect of Mercia), Kentish (dialect of Kent), West Saxon and Northumbrian (dialect of Northumbria). OE was mostly written using the Latin alphabet, supplemented by a few Germanic runic letters to represent sounds not found in Latin e.g. þ, which represented the th sounds in thin or this.
# Middle English. Between the 11th and 14th centuries, and which marked the transition to Middle English (ME) (conventionally dated c.1100-1500). Middle English was spoken during late 11th century to late 15th century. It developed from the Late Old English, which was spoken in Norman England.(1106-1154). Early Middle English developed from late Old English in the second half of 11th century. It was spoken during 12th and 13th centuries. By the second half of 14th century, it became popular as a literary language. Finally in the 15th century the Late Middle English started transitioning into Early Modern English.
Middle English gradually ended the Wessex, as the writing language and emerged as the focal language for writers and poets. Many regions had their own dialects and there were variety of different writing styles. It became more prominent in the 14th century, in the 12th and 13th century it was more Anglo-Norman. It had many dialects in different regions but during 15th century, printing began in England (1470) and the language started becoming more standardized.
B. Medieval English
ReplyDeleteMiddle English began to emerge when the Normans invaded. During this period, English underwent significant changes in vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation, and writing. During this period, some grammars in Old English were simplified or even eliminated altogether.
Middle English adopted some vocabulary from Norman French. This is mainly vocabulary in the fields of politics, law, religion, and the arts. Meanwhile, everyday English still uses vocabulary adopted from Germanic language with the influence of Old Norse.
Let's look at a brief description of Middle English grammar below:
-Noun (Noun)
Just like Old English, Middle English also recognizes two numbers in nouns, namely singular and plural, and strong and weak. Initially, Middle English had four case grammars, namely nominative, accusative, dative, and genitive. But over time, the dative case is no longer used, while the genitive case is still used but rarely.
Compared to the more complex Old English, Middle English only has two endings for nouns, namely –es or –s for strong nouns, and –en or –n for weak nouns.
The use of gender for nouns in Middle English is also reduced.
-Pronoun (Pronoun)
Pronouns in Middle English are mostly derived from Old English, except for third-person plural pronouns borrowed from Old Norse.
-Verb (Verb)
Verbs have endings that must be adjusted to the subject, tenses, and strong or weak forms.
For the present tense with strong and weak verbs, the ending –e is for the first-person singular subject. The suffix –en is for first-person plural subjects. The ending –st or –est is for the second person subject. The ending –eþ is for the third person subject.
For past tenses with weak verbs, the endings used are –ede, -ed, -de, -e, -t, or –te. As for the strong form of the verb, the stem vowel is changed. For example, singen becomes songen.
These strong and weak verbs will later be known as irregular verbs and regular verbs in Modern English.
C. Modern English
Modern English or New English (New English) began with the Great Vowel Shift which made the English pronunciation system change significantly. Early 17th century texts, such as those by William Shakespeare and the King James Bible, use a vocabulary different from that of the earlier period of English. The vocabulary contained in the text is considered to be the beginning of the Modern English period. In this period, the use of second person pronouns, such as thou, thee, thine, thy began to be used and was quite popular.
Here are some of the changes that have occurred in Modern English:
-Verb (Verb)
Starting with the terms regular and irregular verbs (regular and irregular verbs).
The appearance of the mandative subjunctive or the removal of the -s ending in the verb for the third person singular in the subjunctive sentence.
Use of auxiliary verbs “wanna”, “gotta”, “gonna”.
Use of verbs with more than one word, for example: used to, had better, ought to, etc.
The use of progressive verbs in the present perfect and past perfect forms.
Pronoun (Pronoun)
Missing the difference between using “whom” and “who”.
The use of “they” as a pronoun of a singular gender neutral noun.
Put the adverb of frequency in front of the auxiliary verb.
3. A.Old English
ReplyDeleteOld English is the language brought by the Anglo-Saxon people who invaded the British Isles. These Anglo-Saxons are Germanic speakers. That's why it's not surprising that Old English grammar is similar to Germanic. At that time, English was called English. Englisc was written using runes instead of the Latin script we know today.
For example old English :
-The Lord Prayer
Old EnglishMiddle EnglishModern EnglishFæder ure u e eart on heofonum,
si in the name gehalgod.
to becume in rice,
gewurşe in willa,
on eorğan swa swa on heofonum.
urne gedæghwamlican hlaf syle us todæg,
and forgyf us ure gyltas,
swa swa we forgyfağ urum gyltendum.
and ne gelæd u us on costnunge,
ac alys us of yfele solice.
B. Middle English
Middle English began to emerge when the Normans invaded. During this period, English underwent significant changes in vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation, and writing. During this period, some grammars in Old English were simplified or even eliminated altogether.
Middle English adopted some vocabulary from Norman French. This is mainly vocabulary in the fields of politics, law, religion, and the arts. Meanwhile, everyday English still uses vocabulary adopted from Germanic language with the influence of Old Norse.
For example middle English :
-Middle English
Oure fadir şat art in heuenes
halwid be şi name;
şi reume or kyngdom come to be.
Be şi wille don
in herşe as it is dounin heuene.
yeue to us today oure eche dayes bred.
And foryeue to us oure dettis şat is oure synnys
as we foryeuen to oure dettouris şat is to men şat han synned in us.
And lede us not into temptacion
but delyuere us from euyl.
3. Compare the historical and lingual aspect in old English and middle English. What are their difference in those field?
ReplyDeleteThe differences between Old English and Middle English in terms of history are:
• Old English (450 AD - 1100 AD / Middle 5th century to Mid-11th century) or commonly known as Anglo-Saxon is the language spoken by the Saxons, a nomadic tribe that often inhabited British lands. This language was spoken by the Saxons on British soil, until they were expelled by settlers from the Kingdom of Normandy who later founded the Kingdom of England. The expulsion of the Saxons from Britain was the end of the use of Old English in Britain, which was later replaced by French as the national language of the United Kingdom.
• Middle English (1100 AD-1500 AD / late 11th century to late 15th century) was the language spoken in parts of the British Empire where Saxon influence was very strong. Although their national language is French, many areas of the United Kingdom where the majority of the population are of Saxon descent speak this language. This language is a mixture of French and Old English.
The differences between Old English and Middle English in the lingual aspect are:
ReplyDelete• Old English : Old English is the language brought by the Anglo-Saxon people who invaded the British Isles. These Anglo-Saxons are Germanic speakers. That's why it's not surprising that Old English grammar is similar to Germanic. At that time, English was called English. Englisc was written using runes instead of the Latin script we know today. Here is a brief explanation of Old English grammar:
Noun (Noun) : Nouns in Old English have five grammatical cases (nominative, accusative, dative, genitive, and instrumental), three genders (masculine, feminine, and neutral), and two numbers (singular and plural, and the form strong or weak).
Adjective (Adjective): Old English adjectives must match the noun. For this reason, before using adjectives in Old English, we must first identify the gender and number of the noun. Adjectives have strong and weak endings. Weak suffixes are used together with the definite or possessive of the determinant.
Pronoun (Pronoun): Just like adjectives, the use of pronouns in English must also match the noun.
Verb (Verb): Old English verbs conjugate three people (first, second, and third person), two numbers (singular and plural), two tenses (present and past), three moods (indicative, subjunctive, and imperative), and two changes ( strong and weak). Verbs also have two forms infinitive and participle. Just like modern English, the use of verbs in Old English must also be in accordance with the subject.
• Middle English: Middle English began to emerge when the Normans invaded. During this period, English underwent significant changes in vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation, and writing. During this period, some grammars in Old English were simplified or even eliminated altogether. Middle English adopted some vocabulary from Norman French. This is mainly vocabulary in the fields of politics, law, religion, and the arts. Meanwhile, everyday English still uses vocabulary adopted from Germanic language with the influence of Old Norse. The following is a brief description of Middle English grammar:
Noun (Noun): Just like Old English, Middle English also recognizes two numbers in nouns, namely singular and plural, and strong and weak. Initially, Middle English had four case grammars, namely nominative, accusative, dative, and genitive. But over time, the dative case is no longer used, while the genitive case is still used but rarely. Compared to the more complex Old English, Middle English only has two endings for nouns, namely –es or –s for strong nouns, and –en or –n for weak nouns. The use of gender for nouns in Middle English is also reduced.
Pronoun (Pronoun): Pronouns in Middle English are mostly derived from Old English, except for third-person plural pronouns borrowed from Old Norse.
Verb (Verb): Verbs have endings that must be adjusted to the subject, tenses, and strong or weak forms. For the present tense with strong and weak verbs, the ending –e is for the first-person singular subject. The suffix –en is for first-person plural subjects. The ending –st or –est is for the second person subject. The ending –eþ is for the third person subject. For past tenses with weak verbs, the endings used are –ede, -ed, -de, -e, -t, or –te. As for the strong form of verb, the stem vowel is changed. For example, singen becomes songen. And these strong and weak verbs will later be known as irregular verbs and regular verbs in Modern English.
NAME : IIN ANIS SETIAWATI
ReplyDeleteCLASS : TBI 6E
SRN : 191230150
1. Why do people use English as a lingua franca language?
a lingua franca is a contact language among people who don't speak the same language as their first language and is commonly understood to mean the second language of its speakers. English is a language that is spoken all over the world. It has the potential to become dominant and maintain its dominance in the future. More than 375 million people speak English as their native language, 375 million speak it as a second language, and an additional 750 million speak it as a foreign language. English has not only spread amongst its speakers but has also entered most spheres of society. Many world organizations use it as an official language, it's popular in industry, publishing, education, and media, as well as international trade and politics. So, that is the reason Why do people use English as a lingua franca language.
The term lingua franca or “Frankish language” originates from the Middle Ages between the 15th and 19th century, where in the Mediterranean this term signified a pidgin based on Italian and French, which was developed by the traders and used for illegible communication. Languages such as Egyptian, Chinese, French, Greek, Latin, Hebrew, or Arabic all held a status of lingua franca in the past, acting as a contact language amongst people who did not share their first language. A language achieved such status either by military expansion, economic power (which is believed to be a major factor in English becoming the world’s lingua franca) or by religious power.
After World War II, many countries lost its power. The United States, as an English-speaking country, was the only big Western power that remained undamaged educationally, scientifically and politically. Therefore, the United States, helped by its allies, had power in reorganizing the world through the creation of the United Nation. English was then one of the four official languages spoken in the UN. This made English gain stronger status in the world. It is a coincidence that when English gained better status in the political world, the computer era came into being. The first computer programs were then written in English-like language and the output was also English or English-like. This, again, made English gain its status in science and technology in which computer was of important use in it. Nowadays, about 80% or 85% of all the scientific and technological information is written in English. So, that English as a lingua franca language.
2. What factors do people divide the history of language into some stages such as old English, middle English and modern English?
The Factors that can affect the history of a language divided into several stages are those resulting from a combination of historical, social, political factors that cause changes in the times and internal factors that can be seen from the pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary and written appearance of the language; motivation for change arising from the structure of the language itself. The division of stages of the historical period of language begins with the behavior of speakers in their daily lives to adapt to each other, and is followed by the tendency to innovate in familiar groups of people. This initial change can gradually be followed by other changes in a chain, which ultimately makes the languages different from one another. political, economic and educational institutions and the like.
NAME : IIN ANIS SETIAWATI (191230150)
ReplyDelete- Old English : In this period has many varieties of language. There were four main dialects in ancient England: Northumbrian, Mercian, West Saxon, and Kenntish. In general, the differences that are edicts between Old English and modern English are spelling, pronunciation, vowels and grammar.
- The Middle English period (1150 – 1500) in this period there were many important changes in the English language. Changes are more feasible on extensive and fundamental. Changes in this era affect English in grammar and vocabulary. In the grammar section by reducing English from high inflection to a significant difference analysis.
- Modern English: In the 19th century there was a change in personal pronouns into a different form from their original form. There are three differences, including:
. Not wearing thou, thy, and thee;
. Instead of ye is you
. As the nominative case and the recognition of its as the possessive of it. Initially a clear distinction was made around the 17th century, then it took regular form for both cases.
Of the various ways of development in English, the most interesting is in pronouns: In this period there is a new possessive neuter form, its; As we know, the neuter pronoun in Old English is declination, hit, his, him, hit. By combining the Dative (accompaniment object) and Accusative (sufferer object) the mid English hit became hit, his, hit. In this period the position of the hit pressure weakened to it, and in the early modern period, it became the form commonly used as both subject and object. Its also a suitable form for possessive. (Albert C. Baugh, 1963:294, Haryono, 2002)
3. Historical in old english :
A. Headline: 450 AD (Germanic People invade England)
• Celtic language and culture wiped out in England
• Germanic dialects used throughout England
• Old German Dialects = Old English Dialects
• Historians call all these German people “Saxons” or “Anglo-Saxons”
• Anglo-Saxons came from today’s Denmark, Germany and Holland
B. Headline: 865 AD (Vikings invade England )
• Vikings almost conquered all of England (Vikings spoke a North German language: Old Norse)
• Old English absorbed & mixed with Old Norse
• Historians call all Scandinavians “Danes” or Norsemen or Vikings
• Old English and Old Norse were not mutually intelligible languages (They were similar and “merged” through time, trade, politics, assimilation and the next invasion)
C. Alfred the Great: King of the West Saxons
• The Vikings came very close to conquering all of England
• King Alfred of Wessex (Southern England) defeated the Vikings and England was partitioned
• North and East: mix of Old English and Old Norse
• History flipped between the Danes and the Anglo-Saxons a few times after Alfred (Alfred’s grandson regained all of England in 925 AD)
• The Kingdom of England became a unified sovereign state in 927, when it emerged from various Anglo-Saxon kingdoms under King Æthelstan (r. 927–939) who had been King of Wessex.
• Edward the Confessor was the last Anglo-Saxon & House of Wessex King of England (ruled from 1042 to 1066).
This comment has been removed by the author.
ReplyDeleteNAME : IIN ANIS SETIAWATI
ReplyDeleteHistorical in middle english (1066-1500)
A. Headline: 1066 AD Norman French invade & occupy England(200 years later)
• Norman French destroy Anglo-Saxon political and religious leadership
– Normans take all the land, the power and the Church
– Norman French: oral and written language of the rich
• Norman French is a dialect of Old French.
– Latin is language of Church
• English is the oral language of the peasants
– Peasants (Serfs) are 90% of the population
– There is no written English for more than 200 years
– Old English Dialects = Middle English Dialects
• 1066: William Duke of Normandy invaded England and becomes King of England
– Normans spoke a dialect of Old French called Norman French
– Anglo-Saxon nobles were killed in battle or fled
• Normans take all the land & important church offices
– Norman French becomes the official spoken and written language of England for more than 300 years.
– Latin is the language of the church and official documents
• English Language becomes the 3nd class language of peasants (90% of the people)
– Writing in English almost disappears
– Spoken English has no rules or schools or standards
• Norman royals are basically French who hold lands both in Normandy and in occupied England
B. Historical Events after 1066 (The Normans Become English)
• 1204: King John looses Normandy to French
• 1205: French King rules that one person cannot hold estates in both England and France
– English king rules only England
– Normans in England gradually lose contact with France and gradually “go native”.
– French Language in England gradually becomes a foreign language even to the ruling class.
• 1337 – 1453: Hundred Years War with France
– France becomes the enemy of England
C. Headline: Around 1450 AD (Resurrection of English Language, About 400 years later)
• 1450 AD: The English language emerges as the “official” language of England
• First English speaking king in 300 years
• Middle English Dialects = Early Modern English Dialects
• Printing Press (1475)
– Standard Written English became London English (King’s English)
lingual aspects in old English and middle English:
OLD: Fader ure thu the eart on heofonum
MID: Oure fadir that art in heuenes
MOD: Our Father who art in heaven,
OLD: gewurthe thin willa
MID: Be thi wille don
MOD: Thy will be done
Vocabulary: gewurthe //don //done (The word order of the sentence changes)
Changes in Middle English from 1066 to 1400 AD
• French words replaced many Old English words
• Words change pronunciation and spelling
• Inflections (ending on nouns & verbs) are greatly reduced
• Old fashioned letters from Old English disappear
Name : Sarniti
ReplyDeleteNIM : 191230159
Class : TBI 6 E
1. In my opinion, there are several reasons why do people use English as a lingua franca. This is because English is one of the oldest languages in the world and comes from the British plains, which is around the 8th century. Besides English being the oldest language in the world, English has a very rapid vocabulary development. In addition, England is a developed country. This can be seen from the innovation and dissemination of knowledge, which many from western countries have developed very quickly. The UK is also the most colonized country in the world. Therefore, English is very familiar and is widely used in various countries, especially British colonies.
Name : Sarniti (191230159)
ReplyDelete2. The factors that make people divide the history of the language into several stages such as Old English, Middle English, and Modern English are because internal and eksternal factors. Because the history of the English language was influenced by two waves of invasions. The first wave of invasions was the invasion of speakers of the Scandinavian branch of the German language family. They conquered and inhabited parts of Britain in the 8th and 9th centuries. Then this second wave of invasions was the Normans in the 11th century who spoke a dialect of French. These two invasions resulted in English being "mixed" to some degree (though never literally a mixed language). So that's why people divide the history of English into several stages, namely old English, middle English, and modern English.
Then the description is related to changes in the linguistic aspects of the three phases, namely:
a. Old English
Noun (Noun)
Nouns in Old English have five grammatical cases (nominative, accusative, dative, genitive, and instrumental), three genders (masculine, feminine, and neutral), and two numbers (singular and plural, and the form strong or weak).
Adjective (Adjective)
Old English adjectives must match the noun. For this reason, before using adjectives in Old English, we must first identify the gender and number of the noun. Adjectives have strong and weak endings. Weak suffixes are used together with the definite or possessive of the determinant.
Pronoun (Pronoun)
Just like adjectives, the use of pronouns in English must also match the noun.
Verb (Verb)
Old English verbs conjugate three people (first, second, and third person), two numbers (singular and plural), two tenses (present and past), three moods (indicative, subjunctive, and imperative), and two changes ( strong and weak). Verbs also have two forms infinitive and participle. Just like modern English, the use of verbs in Old English must also be in accordance with the subject.
b. middle English
Noun (Noun)
Just like Old English, Middle English also recognizes two numbers in nouns, namely singular and plural, and strong and weak. Initially, Middle English had four case grammars, namely nominative, accusative, dative, and genitive. But over time, the dative case is no longer used, while the genitive case is still used but rarely.
Compared to the more complex Old English, Middle English only has two endings for nouns, namely –es or –s for strong nouns, and –en or –n for weak nouns. The use of gender for nouns in Middle English is also reduced.
Pronoun (Pronoun)
Pronouns in Middle English are mostly derived from Old English, except for third-person plural pronouns borrowed from Old Norse.
Verb (Verb)
Verbs have endings that must be adjusted to the subject, tenses, and strong or weak forms. For the present tense with strong and weak verbs, the ending –e is for the first-person singular subject. The suffix –en is for first-person plural subjects. The ending –st or –est is for the second person subject. The ending –eþ is for the third person subject. For past tenses with weak verbs, the endings used are –ede, -ed, -de, -e, -t, or –te. As for the strong form of the verb, the stem vowel is changed. For example, singen becomes songen. These strong and weak verbs will later be known as irregular verbs and regular verbs in Modern English.
c. Modern English
At this time, England developed after William Caxton made a printing press at Westminster Abbey in 1476. Johann Gutenberg actually invented the printing press in Germany around 1450, but it was Caxton who founded the first press or printing press in England. Eventually the Bible and several valuable manuscripts were printed. And in this era appeared a very great writer, namely William Shakespeare. With a variety of extraordinary works that are famous until now, such as Romeo and Juliet, Hamlet, or Tempest. He also created many English words that are still used today.
Name : Sarniti (191230159
ReplyDelete3. differences the historical and lingual aspects in old English and middle English
a. Old English
Historical aspect:
The origins of Old English are directly related to the migration flows of Germanic tribes, towards the English islands: the Angles, Saxons, Jutes, and Frisians. The Angles coined the terms "English" and "English". Old English is the language brought by the Anglo-Saxon people who invaded the British Isles.
Lingual aspect:
And those related to changes in the linguistic aspect were brought by the Anglo-Saxons who invaded the British Isles. These Anglo-Saxons are Germanic speakers. That's why Old English grammar is similar to Germanic. At that time, English was called English.
For example : Noun (Noun), nouns in Old English have five grammatical cases (nominative, accusative, dative, genitive, and instrumental), three genders (masculine, feminine, and neutral), and two numbers (singular and plural, and the form strong or weak).
b. Middle English
Historical aspect:
Middle English began to emerge when the Normans invaded. During this period, English underwent significant changes in vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation, and writing. During this period, some grammars in Old English were simplified or even eliminated altogether.
Lingual aspect:
Those who are associated with changes in the next linguistic aspect are the Normans, when the Normans invaded. During this period, English experienced significant changes in vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation, and writing. It was also during this period that some grammars in Old English were simplified or even eliminated altogether. This Norman influence strengthened the continuity of changes in the English language over the following centuries and resulted in a language that is now known as Middle English. One of the changes is the increasing use of a unique aspect of English grammar called the continuous tense with the -ing suffix or suffix.
And another example in Noun (Noun), Just like Old English, Middle English also recognizes two numbers in nouns, namely singular and plural, and strong and weak. Initially, Middle English had four case grammars, namely nominative, accusative, dative, and genitive. But over time, the dative case is no longer used, while the genitive case is still used but rarely.
Compared to the more complex Old English, Middle English only has two endings for nouns, namely –es or –s for strong nouns, and –en or –n for weak nouns. The use of gender for nouns in Middle English is also reduced.
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ReplyDeleteErna Erawati
ReplyDelete191230164
TBI 6E
Mid Test History of English
1. Lingua franca is as comunicator language between countries that have speakers of different languages from one another. English is a lingua franca. We can see from the history. At first, English was used by native speakers in the Britain, which we know politically as the British Empire. Over time, the colonial period began when the colonists explored various regions to other continents such as America and Africa or, then made colonies for economic purposes such as commodities that were not available in Europe and power. From there, England had an influence on the lives of its colonies, especially in the spread of the English language.
Continued when the invention of the steam engine by (one of them) James Watt which marked the rise of the Industrial revolution era in England. This makes England a modern industrial-based country that has an impact on the political, economic and social fields of other countries.
Britain continued to expand its territory into Asia and Australia, and with its wide-spreading power, it is not surprising that the impact was also large. The end of the 19th century was the end of the era of the heyday of the British empire. Although many of its colonies have become independent or become commonwealth countries, the great influence created by Britain has left advanced civilizations and new cultures.
So that in the future English is agreed to be an international language, even becoming the official language or the second language of its former colonies. At the end of the 19th century, an artificial language was created which functions as a lingua franca in international communication.
2. Factors do people divide the history of language into some stages:
- Politics
- Assimilation of culture
- Latin
- Big war between English and France
- King and queen divorce
- The behavior of the speakers in their daily lives to adjust to each other
- Tendency to innovate to community groups that are already familiar
Related with linguistic aspect :
- The ME corpus indicates that the consonantal system remained relatively stable during the period, experiencing a few significant changes from OE. The vowel system, however, underwent many more changes, some of which would have far-reaching consequences for the inflectional structures of English.
- Not wearing thou, thy, and thee;
- Instead of ye is you;
- As the nominative case and the recognition of its as possessive of it.
- In this period there is a new form of possessive neuter, its; As we know, the neuter pronouns in Old English are declined, hit, his, him, hit. By merging Dative (object accompaniment) and Accusative (object sufferer) hits in middle English became hit, his, hit. On this period the position of the hit pressure weakened to it, and at the beginning of the modern period, it became a commonly used as subject and object. Its also a suitable form for possessive.
- A large number of Norman words were borrowed in Old English and produced many synonyms (for example, take ox/beef (cow), sheep/mutton (goat), and others). This Norman influence strengthened the continuity of changes in the English language over the following centuries and resulted in a language that is now known as Middle English. One of the changes is the increasing use of a unique aspect of English grammar called the continuous tense with the -ing suffix or suffix.
- Starting with the terms regular and irregular verbs (regular and irregular verbs).
- The appearance of the mandatory subjunctive or the removal of the -s ending in the verb for the third person singular in the subjunctive sentence.
- The use of auxiliary verbs “wanna”, “gotta”, “gonna”.
- The use of verbs with more than one word, for example: used to, had better, ought to, etc.
- The use of progressive verbs in the present perfect and past perfect.
3. The differences historical and lingual aspects between old English and middle English.
DeleteOLD ENGLISH
Historical:
Old English, also known as Anglo-Saxon, is a West Germanic language of the North Sea Germanic group. This language was formed from a dialect continuity of the Germanic languages spoken by the Jutes, Angles, and Saxons (Anglo-Saxons) who settled in the region of Anglia to the Jutland Peninsula. At that time, the British Isles were still inhabited by the Celtic tribes and the Romans. Anglo-Saxons invaded the British Isles and brought these languages to the islands. This invasion led many Celtic tribes and Romans to migrate to more isolated areas. Meanwhile, the interaction between the surrounding community and the Anglo-Saxon tribes formed the Anglo-Saxon language known as Old English. This is the reason why Old English developed independently of Old Frisian or even Old Saxon.
Various languages spoken by the Celtic tribes who settled in isolated areas gave birth to modern Celtic languages such as Welsh (Cymraeg), Cornwall (Kernowek), Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig) and Irish (Gaeilge). Meanwhile, the Common Latin spoken by the Romans became extinct around the 8th century because its speakers had fused with the speakers of the Celtic languages. In addition, the Vikings expanded by invading and establishing territory on the island of Great Britain by forming the Danelaw. This is why Old English has so many words that have their roots in Old Norse.
Lingual aspects:
a. Old English has 3 genders (masculine, feminine, neuter)
b. Old English has a lot of inflections, because many cases are needed.
c. Different vowel sounds
d. Different writing
e. Greatest linguistic influence from Germany (Anglo-Saxon)
f. Old English is very different from the English we know today. Whether in grammar, pronunciation, or spelling. For example, the word stãn is stone in Old English, becoming stone in modern English. Sãwol in old english is soul in modern english. Drincan becomes drink, feohtan becomes fight. The writing is also different.
g. Old English is the language brought by the Anglo-Saxon people who invaded the British Isles. These Anglo-Saxons are Germanic speakers. That's why it's not surprising that Old English grammar is similar to Germanic. At that time, English was called English. Englisc was written using runes instead of the Latin script we know today.
MIDDLE ENGLISH
DeleteHistorical:
Middle English is divided into two eras, Early Middle and Late Middle English. The Early Middle Ages began when the Normans invaded the British Isles. The Normans use the Norman language which is one of the Old French dialects (Langues d'oïl) in northern France that has many loanwords from Old Norse. At that time, English was considered a second-class language in the British Isles and its speakers were forced to speak French. This is the cause of the large number of vocabulary in English that comes from French. This is why some English speakers migrate to Ireland. The southern county of County Wexford was the first county in Ireland to be occupied by English speakers in Ireland. Speakers in this area are the origin of the Forth and Bargy dialect or better known as the Yola . dialect
Lingual aspects:
a. Gender has started to be abandoned
b. Inflection decreases with simplification of cases
c. Vocal sound changed from Old English
d. Writing is approaching Modern English
e. The greatest language influence from France (Normandy)
f. Middle English began to emerge when the Normans invaded. During this period, English underwent significant changes in vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation, and writing. During this period, some grammars in Old English were simplified or even eliminated altogether. Middle English adopted some vocabulary from Norman French. This is mainly vocabulary in the fields of politics, law, religion, and the arts. Meanwhile, everyday English still uses vocabulary adopted from Germanic language with the influence of Old Norse.
g. English at this time is much simpler in terms of grammatical. S/es as a plural marker has started to be used after in Old English every gender change, the plural marker will also change.
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ReplyDeleteNama : Anugrah Restu Fauzi
ReplyDeleteNIM : 191230147
Class : TBI 6E
ANSWERS :
1. Because English is due to the fact that is the common language or mode of communication that enables people to understand one another regardless of their cultural and ethnical backgrounds. It makes communication a lot easier, and it has improved our ability to understand one another.
2. The Factors are :
a. Old English
Old English was from the arrival of three Germanic tribes who invaded or colonized the British in the 5th century AD. The Germans crossed the northern seas of what is now Denmark and northern Germany. At that time the British population still spoke the Cheltin language.
b. Middle English
In 1066, the Norman army led by William the Conqueror (Duke of Normandy) defeated the Anglo-Saxons at the Battle of Hastings and killed the last Anglo-Saxon king, Harold II.
c. Modern English
Crowley implies, political, religious and technological developments were not only centripetal in nature, but central to the shape of the EMod period and, most importantly for us, to the use of English. The discussion in this section is therefore shaped around consideration of such developments and of their linguistic impact.
The Other Factors :
a. Language is transformed as it is transmitted from one generation to the next.
b. Migration, conquest and trade bring speakers of one language into contact with speakers of another language.
c. Social groups adopt distinctive norms of dress, adornment, gesture and so forth language is part of the package.
Name : Arli Salsabila
ReplyDeleteNIM : 191230153
Class: TBI 6 E
1. English as an international language has a long history. English is actually not the native language of the people living in the British Isle. If traced from its origin, Old English is basically a type of Germanic language which is one of the branches of the Indo-European language (Indo-European language). This Old English language was originally brought by explorers in the 5th century AD from northern Europe. this nation of explorers who lived on the mainland of England came to be known as the Anglo-Saxons. The word English itself also comes from where they come from, namely English from the words Anglia and Saxon which in its development later changed to English.
After entering England for the first time, this Old English language quickly spread throughout the British Isle Islands, especially Wales, Cornwall, Cumbria and Southern Scotland, which actually already has a native language called Celtic. because of the invasion and colonization of the Romans and French For hundreds of years this old English language then experienced assimilation and mixing with other languages, namely Celtic (the native language of people who came from the northern part of the island), Latin (brought by the Roman conquerors) and French or French (the Roman conquistadors). immigrants and rivals) in England. The existence of the Romans and their descendants in England (Anglo-Norman) for a long time made the Old English language slowly began to spread throughout the island including the northern region (Scotland) brought by Anglo-Norman nobles who emigrated to the north. This language was assimilated with the original (Celtic) language, which was then known as Scottish English.
Nama : Anugrah Restu Fauzi
ReplyDeleteNIM : 191230147
Class : TBI 6E
3.
a. Old English
1) Historical
At the beginning of the 5th century the Roman army was withdrawn entirely from England for the situation at the center of Rome's government had deteriorated and faltered. The decline was caused by various economic and financial problems politics, and also because of the increasing attacks of Germanic tribes. The Celts of the Britons who had absorbed Roman culture abandoned. During the time of the power vacuum, a large-scale invasion of Germanic tribes from mainland Europe and destroying the remnants of Roman culture that still exists. In the Old English period the spread of Christianity had significant influence in the development of literature and culture English. Christianity entered among the Anglo-Saxons towards the end of the 6th century from two directions, namely from the South and from the North.
2) Lingual
OE vowels: a, æ, e, i, o, u, y.
OE consonants: b, c, d, f, g, h, l, m, n, p, r, s, t, x all occurred, as did the more rarely used k and z.
b. Middle English
1) Historical
With the ascension of Danish kings to the English throne, the Anglo-Saxon period came to an end. Cnut inherited the kingdom of Denmark from his brother four years into his English reign, thereby establishing a powerful Balto-Danish empire. Despite the fact that England was simply a province in this much broader body, Cnut made it his home and focused most of his energy on ensuring that the political stability and wealth enjoyed by monarchs like Alfred were maintained. Cnut wisely administered 'England the English Way,' allowing the already established councils and governments to continue doing what they had been doing well for ages.
2) Lingual
In early ME spelling, the three allophonic values of /g/ – [g], [γ] and [j] – were represented by both g and yogh, _ (a retention of Anglo-Saxon _). In general, the graph g represented [g] (as in ME gome ‘man’), and _ [γ] and [j] (as in ME cni_t and _elde(n)). By late ME, [γ] was represented by gh and [j] by y, hence later ME spelling of the latter two examples as knight ‘knight’ and yelde(n) ‘yield’, ‘give’.
Anglo Norman scribes also introduced the use of the graph v for [v], which in OE had been represented by f, as in OE drifan (‘to drive’) and seofan (‘seven’). They also followed the continental practice of using v and u for both consonant and vowel sounds. As a general rule, v was used word-initially and u elsewhere, yielding ME spellings such as euer (‘ever’), euil (‘evil’) and vndep (‘undeep’ _ ‘shallow’).
2. English derives from the fusion of various related dialects, collectively today known as Old English, which were brought to the east coast of the Isle of Britain by Germanic settlers (Anglo-Saxons) in the 5th century; the English word' comes from the name Angles. The Anglo-Saxons themselves came from the Angeln region (currently Schleswig-Holstein, Germany). Early English was also influenced by Old Norse after the Vikings conquered England in the 9th and 10th centuries. Vikings who spoke Old Norse (or Old Irish), this dialect found certain words that are still used today, such as “take, give, and skin”. Old Irish left its mark on English by influencing basic grammatical rules, such as "they, them, and their" and "-s" in the third person (singular).
ReplyDeleteThe Norman conquest of England in the 11th century led to English also being influenced by Norman French, and English vocabulary and spelling began to be influenced by Roman Latin, which became known as Middle English. Norman caused serious linguistic changes in English, as it became the language of the Court. This language introduces a great deal of diversity in Middle English vocabulary.
In most cases there are 2 words used to refer to the same thing. There will be the word Saxon, which is of Germanic origin and the word of Norman origin. The term Saxon was used by the people, while the Norman term was used by the nobility, for example "pig" vs. "pork" and "ox" vs. "beef".
Many words have been taken from the Norman language, such as "uthority", "government", "pardon", "battle", "cream", "vinegar", "anatomy", "nature", "table", and "honour".
The Vowel Shift that began in southern England in the 15th century is one of the historic events that marked the transition from Middle English to Modern English.
In addition to Anglo-Saxons and Norman French, a large number of words in English also have Latin roots, because Latin was the lingua franca of the Christian Church and the main language of European intellectual circles, and has become the vocabulary basis for modern English.
English continued to evolve with the influence of Latin and Greek. English writers write literary texts, while scientific research (certain medical and legal texts) is written in Latin. This is why words, such as, "maternity, atmosphere, or skeleton" are borrowed from Latin. The Greek language equally leaves its mark with words, such as, "anthropology, archaeology, and geography."
Having experienced a diverse mix of words from different languages throughout history, modern English has a very large vocabulary, with complex and irregular spellings, especially vowels. Modern English is not only a blend of European languages, but also from various languages around the world.
Like:
• Dutch words like, “yacht or wagon”
• Arabic words such as, “admiral, alembic, cotton, elixir, alcohol, algebra, and apricot”
• Hindi words like, “curry” or “arsenic”
• Persian words like, “bazaar” and
• Turkish words like, “coffee and |caviar”
• Native American words such as, “canoe, lama, manioc, tobacco, and chocolate”
Name: Arli Salsabila
ReplyDelete3. - Old English
Old English is the language brought by the Anglo-Saxon people who invaded the British Isles. These Anglo-Saxons are Germanic speakers. That's why it's not surprising that Old English grammar is similar to Germanic. At that time, English was called English. Englisc was written using runes instead of the Latin script we know today.
For example old English :
-The Lord Prayer
Old EnglishMiddle EnglishModern EnglishFæder ure u e eart on heofonum,
si in the name gehalgod.
to becume in rice,
gewurşe in willa,
on eorğan swa swa on heofonum.
urne gedæghwamlican hlaf syle us todæg,
and forgyf us ure gyltas,
swa swa we forgyfağ urum gyltendum.
and ne gelæd u us on costnunge,
ac alys us of yfele solice.
- Middle English
Middle English began to emerge when the Normans invaded. During this period, English underwent significant changes in vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation, and writing. During this period, some grammars in Old English were simplified or even eliminated altogether.
Middle English adopted some vocabulary from Norman French. This is mainly vocabulary in the fields of politics, law, religion, and the arts. Meanwhile, everyday English still uses vocabulary adopted from Germanic language with the influence of Old Norse.
For example middle English :
-Middle English
Oure fadir şat art in heuenes
halwid be şi name;
şi reume or kyngdom come to be.
Be şi wille don
in herşe as it is dounin heuene.
yeue to us today oure eche dayes bred.
And foryeue to us oure dettis şat is oure synnys
as we foryeuen to oure dettouris şat is to men şat han synned in us.
And lede us not into temptacion
but delyuere us from euyl.
Name : Kharisma Nidaul Hasanah
ReplyDeleteSRN : 191230146
Class : TBI 6 E
1. Why do people use English as a lingua franca language? Explain your opinion based on the historical perspective!
Answer:
Why English has become the world's lingua franca is due to the fact that is the common language or mode of communication that enables people to understand one another regardless of their cultural and ethnical backgrounds. It makes communication a lot easier and understanding one another has become efficient. A lingua franca is a common language serving as a regular means of communication relating to scientific, technological, and academic information between different linguistic groups in a multilingual speech community. Historically speaking, English first evolved as a lingua franca in the late 19th and early 20th centuries as a result of the British Empire, which exported its own language to all corners of the earth. In the second half of the 20th century, the American Empire replaced the British Empire throughout the world. English has reasserted itself as a medium for universal communication in an increasingly interconnected world. At first, this lingua franca differed in each region, for example, countries in Southeast Asia used Arabic from the Middle East during the 7th century. Then in the 18th century scientists studied Latin as the lingua franca. And during the era of European expansion, Portuguese became a common language in Asia, Africa and Japan. It has now been agreed that English is a common language or lingua franca.
2. What factors do people divide the history of language into some stages such as old English, middle English and modern English? Then, describe them relating to the changes of linguistic aspects.
DeleteAnswer:
English as we know has a very long history of formation and evolution. It is estimated that more than 1500 years of the evolution of the English language took place. Historians divide this period of English evolution into three periods, namely the Old English period, the Middle English period (Middle English or Medieval English), and the Modern English period (Modern English). Due to its evolution, of course English in these three periods has differences. A language can also change due to regional differences. People living in different areas may differ in their choice of vocabulary. In the same way, factors such as education, age and social status also play a role. When people interact, they sometimes choose new words that become integrated into their speech. And for the linguistic aspect:
1. Old English:
- Noun
Nouns in Old English have five grammatical cases or grammatical cases (nominative, accusative, dative, genitive, and instrumental), three genders (masculine, feminine, and neutral), and two numbers or numerals (singular and plural, and forms strong or weak).
- Adjective
Old English adjectives must match the noun. For this reason, before using an adjective in Old English, we must first identify the gender and number of the noun. Adjectives have strong and weak endings. Weak suffixes are used together with the definite or possessive of the determinant.
- Pronoun
Just like adjectives, the use of pronouns in English must also match the noun.
- Verb
Old English verbs conjugate three persons (first, second, and third person), two numbers (singular and plural), two tenses (present and past), three moods (indicative, subjunctive, and imperative), and two changes ( strong and weak). Verb also has two forms infinitive and participle. Just like in modern English, the use of verbs in Old English must also be in accordance with the subject.
2. Middle English:
- Noun
Just like Old English, Middle English also recognizes two numbers in nouns, namely singular and plural, and strong and weak. Initially, Middle English had four case grammars, namely nominative, accusative, dative, and genitive. But over time, the dative case is no longer used, while the genitive case is still used but rarely. Middle English only has two endings for nouns, –es or –s for strong nouns, and –en or –n for weak nouns. The use of gender for nouns in Middle English is also reduced.
- Pronoun
Pronouns in Middle English are mostly derived from Old English, except for third-person plural pronouns borrowed from Old Norse.
- Verb
Verbs have endings that must be adjusted to the subject, tenses, and strong or weak forms. For the present tense with strong and weak verbs, the ending –e is for the first-person singular subject. The suffix –en is for first-person plural subjects. The ending –st or –est is for the second person subject. The ending –eþ is for the third person subject. For past tenses with weak verbs, the endings used are –ede, -ed, -de, -e, -t, or –te. As for the strong form of the verb, the stem vowel is changed.
3. Modern English:
- Verb
Starting with the terms regular and irregular verbs (regular and irregular verbs). The appearance of the mandative subjunctive or the removal of the -s ending in the verb for the third person singular in the subjunctive sentence.
Use of auxiliary verbs “wanna”, “gotta”, “gonna”. Use of verbs with more than one word, for example: used to, had better, ought to, etc. The use of progressive verbs in the present perfect and past perfect forms.
- Pronoun
Missing the difference between using “whom” and “who”. The use of “they” as a pronoun of a singular gender neutral noun. Put the adverb of frequency in front of the auxiliary verb.
3. Compare the historical and lingual aspects in old English and middle English. What are their differences in those fields?
DeleteAnswer:
The Old English (OE) period can be regarded as starting around AD 450, with the arrival of West Germanic settlers (Angles, Saxons and Jutes) in southern Britain. They brought with them dialects closely related to the continental language varieties which would produce modern German, Dutch and Frisian. OE, also called Anglo-Saxon, was not heavily influenced by the Celtic languages spoken by the native inhabitants of the British Isles, borrowing only a few words (e.g. brock, tor) associated with local wildlife and geography (but many place and river names e.g. Dover, Avon). However, Latin, introduced to Britain by the Romans, and reinforced in its influence by the conversion of the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity during the 7th century, had a significant impact, providing both vocabulary (e.g. master, mass, school) and the basis for the writing system. OE was mostly written using the Latin alphabet, supplemented by a few Germanic runic letters to represent sounds not found in Latin e.g. þ, which represented the th sounds in thin or this. (A relic of þ survives as y in modern signs like Ye Olde Tea Shoppe.). The later Viking settlements in many parts of the British Isles also resulted in substantial borrowing of basic
Norse influence may also have contributed to an important grammatical change, which mainly occurred in English between the 11th and 14th centuries, and which marked the transition to Middle English (ME)(conventionally dated c.1100-1500). OE had indicated many grammatical categories and relationships by attaching inflections (endings) to word roots, in a similar way to Latin or German. Thus, in the OE clause wolde guman findan ‘he wanted to find the man’, the –e on wolde indicates a 3rd person singular subject: ‘he wanted’; the –n on guman indicates that ‘the man’ is the object, not the subject of the verb; and the –an on findan indicates an infinitive: ‘to find’.
In Middle English (ME), changes in the pronunciation of unstressed syllables, mainly occurring at the ends of words, caused most inflections to merge indistinguishably, or be dropped altogether. This inflectional breakdown could have created ambiguity (e.g. wanted man find), but speakers compensated by using more rigid word order (subject – verb – object, usually), among other strategies. Another important feature of the early ME period was the influence of Norman (and later, central) French, following the Norman conquest of 1066. French dominance and prestige in such contexts as the royal court, law, the church and education encouraged extensive borrowing of vocabulary e.g. French words for farmed animals pork, beef and mutton (modern French porc, bœuf and mouton) were adopted alongside native words swine, cow and sheep. The borrowed words came to signify only the meat of these animals, mainly eaten by wealthier French speakers, whereas the words inherited from OE came to refer only to the living animals. Norman scribes also influenced the way English was written, respelling words using conventions from French; thus OE îs became ice, cwçn became queen. However, by the 14th and 15th centuries, French influence in Britain had begun to wane, being replaced for many purposes by English.
Name: Alfiah Dwi Rahayu
ReplyDeleteNim: 191230157
Class: TBI 6E
1. Why people use English as a lingua franca? Historical background of English as a Lingua Franca is English first evolved as a lingua franca in the late 19th and early 20th centuries as a result of the British Empire, which exported its own language to all corners of the earth. In the second half of the 20th century, the American Empire replaced the British Empire throughout the world. The phenomenon of English as a lingua franca, in other words English used among speakers who have different first language backgrounds, has existed since the British began to colonize parts of Asia and Africa in the late 16th century. However, it is only during the past thirty years that ELF has spread to the rest of the world, seen a dramatic rise in its number of users, and attained its current global states. English as a Lingua Franca refers mean to the teaching, learning, and use of English as a common means of communication (or contact language) for speakers of different native languages. Why English has become the world's lingua franca is due to the fact that is the common language or mode of communication that enables people to understand one another regardless of their cultural and ethnical backgrounds. It makes communication a lot easier and understanding one another has become efficient.
2. What factors do people divide the history of language into some stages such as old English, middle English and modern English? Then, describe them relating to the changes of linguistic aspects.
In my opinion the event that began the transition from Old English to Middle English was the Norman Conquest of 1066, when William the Conqueror (Duke of Normandy and, later, William I of England) invaded the island of Britain from his home base in northern France, and settled in his new acquisition along with his nobles and court. And also the primary social factors that we consider are age, urbanization, socioeconomic development, education, religion, and gender. The choice of these social factors to investigate comes from previous work at the speech community level on the sociolinguistics of language shift and endangerment
A. Old English
Old English was spoken from mid 5th century to the mid-12th century. It was a West Germanic language of the 5th century. The origin of the old English started from ingvaeonic also called “Germanic of the North Sea”. Ingvaeonic was named after a West Germanic proto-tribe cultural group called Ingaevones. This language was a grouping of Old Frisian, Old Saxon and Old English. Later it developed into Anglo- Saxon language, the language spoken by people living in parts of modern England and Southeastern lands of Scotland. Anglo–Saxon was developed only after 7th century after Christianization. It was constantly influenced by many languages.
In vocabulary, Old English was very resourceful in the formation of words by means of prefixes and suffixes. It was possible to form more than a hundred words from the same roet. Some of the most commonly employed suffixes were – dom, -end, -ere, -nes, -ung, -scipe to form nouns, and –sun, -wis to form adjectives. This feature was most widely used to form verbs with about twelve common prefixes to form verbs: be-, for-, fore-, ge-, mis-, of-, on- etc. another notable feature was the large number of self explaining compounds, that is compounds of two or more native words whose meaning is self evident such as gimmwyrhta ( gem-worker) (geweller). This capacity for forming new words by combining the existing ones and by deriving them with the help of prefixes and suffixes gave a remarkable variety and flexibility to Old English. This is evident in its literature, which is distinguished for its poetry rich in synonyms and metaphors e.g. Beowulf.
B. Middle English
ReplyDeleteMiddle English was a form of the English language spoken after the Norman conquest (1066) until the late 15th century. The English language underwent distinct variations and developments following the Old English period. Scholarly opinion varies, but the Oxford English Dictionary specifies the period when Middle English was spoken as being from 1150 to 1500.[2] This stage of the development of the English language roughly followed the High to the Late Middle Ages.
Linguistic features:
1) Pronunciation
Since our surviving Middle English evidence is so characterized by regional variation, it is very difficult to summarize ‘typical’ Middle English pronunciation, just as it is difficult to summarize ‘typical’ Middle English morphology, or grammar. for example, the i in fīn ‘fine’ represents a long monophthong similar to that in modern English meet, while the e in mēten ‘to meet’ represents a sound more similar to that in modern English make (but a monophthong, not a diphthong).
2) Grammatical
Another feature of the middle English is the Loss of Grammatical Gender. Old English had grammatical genders (m., f., and n.), like the modern continental languages. And like its modern counterparts, Old English sometimes exhibited a disparity between grammatical and biological gender. Hence þæt wif, “the woman” (n.), se stan, “the stone” (m.), or seo giefu, “the gift” (f.).
3) Sentences structure
Middle English syntax (or sentence structure) is similar to Modern English. The default, or basic, word order is Subject-Verb-Object. The most direct way to avoid this kind of ambiguity is through limiting the possible patterns of word order.
C. Modern English
Modern English is the form of the English language spoken since the Great Vowel Shift in England, which began in the late 14th century and was completed in roughly 1550.
1) Spelling and pronunciation
Modern English preserves a lack of correlation between the spelling and pronunciation of the word. The same sound is represented by different letters of the alphabet in different words. The letter ‘u’ is pronounced differently in words like out, pull, and fuse, and the sound ‘i’ is spelled differently in words like he, see, deceive and machine. Albert C. Baugh feels that Modern English has an illogical system of spelling as the sound of ‘sh’ has fourteen spelling as in shoe, shine, sure, conscience, suspicion, chivalry, Asia, nauseous and pshaw. There is congruity between the spelling and pronunciation of a large number of words through an ‘h’ sound that has been introduced in words like humble, hospital and honor in Modern English. The pronunciation of Middle English (e) has also witnessed a change in the Modern English period. Words like heal, seat which were pronounced with the vowel-like hate, mate have found a change in the Modern English period.
2) Nouns
Are being used as adjectives as in 'bus station' and 'boy friend'. In the same way, verbs are employed as nouns as in ' a wash', ' a cut'.
3. Compare the historical and lingual aspects in old English and middle English. What are their differences in those fields?
ReplyDeleteA. Old English (450 AD- 1100 AD/ Mid 5th century to Mid 11th century)
1) Historical
Old English was spoken from mid 5th century to the mid-12th century. It was a West Germanic language of the 5th century. The origin of the old English started from ingvaeonic also called “Germanic of the North Sea”. Ingvaeonic was named after a West Germanic proto-tribe cultural group called Ingaevones. This language was a grouping of Old Frisian, Old Saxon and Old English. Later it developed into Anglo- Saxon language, the language spoken by people living in parts of modern England and Southeastern lands of Scotland. Anglo–Saxon was developed only after 7th century after Christianization.
2) Lingual
a. Example of Old English
From Poem: The Lord's Prayer (Our Father)
Fæder ure
ðu ðe eart on heofenum
si ðin nama gehalgod
to-becume ðin rice
geweorþe ðin willa on eorðan swa swa on heofenum.
Urne ge dæghwamlican hlaf syle us to-deag
and forgyf us ure gyltas
swa swa we forgifaþ urum gyltendum
ane ne gelæde ðu us on costnunge
ac alys us of yfle.
b. Pronunciation in Old English -
The most significant feature of Old English is its pronunciation of words differing from the ones that exist today. In the words of A.C. Baugh," The pronunciation of Old English words commonly differs somewhat from that of their modern equivalents.
The long vowels in particular have gone a considerable modification. Thus the Old English word ' stan' is the same word as Modern word 'stone', but the vowel is different." In Old English script there are seven vowels symbols - a, e, i, o, u and y and the digraph 'ae' which is called 'ash'.
c. Grammar
Old English nouns have two numbers - singular and plural. It has three genders - masculine, feminine and neuter. Thus in Old English stan ( stone ) is masculine, German words like maegolon ( girl), wif ( wife), bearn ( child, son) which we expect to be feminine or masculine are in fact neuter. The word wifmann ( woman) is masculine because the second element of the compound is masculine.
B. Middle English (1100 AD-1500 AD/ late 11th century to late 15th century)
1) History
Middle English was spoken during late 11th century to late 15th century. It developed from the Late Old English, which was spoken in Norman England.(1106-1154). In the eleventh century, there were various Norman conquests going in the region of Britain, and this brought a huge difference in the development of the English language. The duke of Normandy, William, the conqueror, conquered Britain in 1066 and, with this conquest, many newer impressions got fixed into the English language. The most significant and important one was the French language impression which got mixed with the English language being spoken at that time. This is the reason for the modern English of today can be seen having its roots in French language.
2) Lingual aspect
Example of Middle English:
From Poem: Canterbury Tales
"Whan that Aprill, with his shoures soote
The droghte of March hath perced to the roote
And bathed every veyne in swich licour,
Of which vertu engendred is the flour..."
a. Example of Middle English:
From Poem: Canterbury Tales
"Whan that Aprill, with his shoures soote
The droghte of March hath perced to the roote
And bathed every veyne in swich licour,
Of which vertu engendred is the flour..."
b. Nouns
Some nouns of the strong type have an -e in the nominative/accusative singular, like the weak declension, but otherwise strong endings. Often these are the same nouns that had an -e in the nominative/accusative singular of Old English (they, in turn, were inherited from Proto-Germanic ja-stem and i-stem nouns).
Name : Mohamad Adam Firdaus
ReplyDeleteSRN : 191230154
Class : TBI 6E
1. English as Lingua Franca
History English has a lengthy history as an international language. Since ancient Rome, it has been vital to have a language that many people can comprehend in order to communicate with people from different countries. That language is now known as the lingua franca. Lingua franca is a language that is used to communicate amongst people from different cultures. Each region had its own lingua franca at first. Then it was decided that English would be used as a common language.
English is the world's oldest language, having evolved about the year 8 AD. English developed quickly as well, eventually becoming a worldwide language. According to Wonderpolis, scholars trace the origins of English to three Germanic tribes that invaded Great Britain in the 5th century: Angles, Saxons, and Rami.
In fact, instead of speaking English, people in England at the time spoke Celtic. People were gradually driven north and west into what is now Wales, Scotland, and Ireland by the colonists. Angles of assault originate in "England," and the language utilized is known as "Englisc." As a result, English has become the primary language of communication.
Continued below
Name : Mohamad Adam Firdaus
ReplyDeleteSRN : 191230154
Class : TBI 6E
2. Old, Middle and Modern English
Internal and external reasons such as historical events such as invasion or colonization, as well as political, social, and cultural concerns, have led to the division of English into three phases. Furthermore, because it has evolved, English in these three periods contains peculiarities that must be distinguished according to the era.
a. Old English
The arrival of West Germanic settlers (Angles, Saxons, and Jutes) in southern Britain around AD 450 marks the beginning of the Old English (OE) era. They brought dialects that were closely connected to the continental linguistic variations that would eventually give rise to modern German, Dutch, and Frisian.
For instance, in the language aspect, consider the verb. Three people (first, second, and third person), two numbers (single and plural), two tenses (present and past), three moods (indicative, subjunctive, and imperative), and two changes are all conjugated in Old English verbs ( strong and weak).
b. Middle English
Some Norman French language was absorbed by Middle English. This is mostly political, legal, religious, and artistic jargon. Meanwhile, terminology borrowed from Germanic languages and influenced by Old Norse is still used in everyday English.
For example, The suffix -e is for a single first person subject in the present tense with strong and weak verbs. The suffix -en is used for the first person plural subject. Second-person subjects are denoted by the suffix -st or -est. Third-person subjects have the suffix -e.
The suffixes -ede, -ed, -de, -e, -t, or -te are used for past tenses with weak verbs. The stem vowel in strong verbs is altered. Singen, for example, becomes songen.
c. Modern English
The Great Vowel Shift, which drastically altered the English pronunciation system, ushered in Modern English or New English (New English). Early 17th-century writings, such as William Shakespeare's plays and the King James Bible, employ a vocabulary distinct from that of earlier English periods. The text's vocabulary is regarded to mark the beginning of the Modern English period. The usage of second person pronouns like thou, thee, thine, and thy became quite common during this time.
For example in verb, To begin, let's define the phrases regular and irregular verbs (regular and irregular verbs).
Name : Mohamad Adam Firdaus
ReplyDeleteSRN : 191230154
Class : TBI 6E
3. The Differences
1. Old English
a. Historical
The Roman army was completely evacuated from England at the beginning of the fifth century because the situation at the heart of Rome's administration had worsened and crumbled. The fall was caused by a variety of economic and financial issues, as well as increased raids by Germanic tribes. The Britons' Celts, who had acquired Roman civilization, had abandoned it. During the power vacuum, a large-scale migration of Germanic tribes from mainland Europe, wiping out any last relics of Roman culture.
b. Lingual
- OE vowels: a, æ, e, i, o, u, y.
- OE consonants: b, c, d, f, g, h, l, m, n, p, r, s, t, x all occurred, as did the more rarely used k and z.
2. Middle English
a. Historical
The Anglo-Saxon period came to an end with the accession of Danish rulers to the English throne. Four years into his English rule, Cnut gained the kingdom of Denmark from his brother, establishing a formidable Balto-Danish empire. Despite the fact that England was just a province within a much larger body, Cnut considered it his home and spent the most of his time ensuring that the political stability and affluence experienced by kings such as Alfred were preserved. Cnut wisely managed 'England the English Way,' enabling existing councils and administrations to continue doing what they had been doing effectively for centuries.
b. Lingual
Anglo Norman writers also popularized the use of the graph v for [v], which was formerly represented by f in Old English, as in OE drifan ('to drive') and seofan ('seven'). They also used v and u for both consonant and vowel sounds, as did the continentals. ME spellings like euer ('ever'), euil ('evil'), and vndep ('undeep' _'shallow') result from the usage of v word-initially and u elsewhere.
Name : Ade WIrdatus Sholihah
ReplyDeleteSRN : 191230149
Class : TBI 6 E
Subject : History of English
MID-TERM
1. A lingua franca is a contact language among people who don't speak the same language as their first language and is commonly understood to mean the second language of its speakers. English is a language that is spoken all over the world. It has the potential to become dominant and maintain its dominance in the future. More than 375 million people speak English as their native language, 375 million speak it as a second language, and an additional 750 million speak it as a foreign language. English has not only spread amongst its speakers but has also entered most spheres of society. Many world organizations use it as an official language, it's popular in industry, publishing, education, and media, as well as international trade and politics. So, that is the reason Why do people use English as a lingua franca language.
The term lingua franca or “Frankish language” originates from the Middle Ages between the 15th and 19th century, where in the Mediterranean this term signified a pidgin based on Italian and French, which was developed by the traders and used for illegible communication. Languages such as Egyptian, Chinese, French, Greek, Latin, Hebrew, or Arabic all held a status of lingua franca in the past, acting as a contact language amongst people who did not share their first language. A language achieved such status either by military expansion, economic power (which is believed to be a major factor in English becoming the world’s lingua franca) or by religious power.
After World War II, many countries lost its power. The United States, as an English-speaking country, was the only big Western power that remained undamaged educationally, scientifically and politically. Therefore, the United States, helped by its allies, had power in reorganizing the world through the creation of the United Nation. English was then one of the four official languages spoken in the UN. This made English gain stronger status in the world. It is a coincidence that when English gained better status in the political world, the computer era came into being. The first computer programs were then written in English-like language and the output was also English or English-like. This, again, made English gain its status in science and technology in which computer was of important use in it. Nowadays, about 80% or 85% of all the scientific and technological information is written in English. So, that English as a lingua franca language.
2. People divided the history of English into some stages because there are some particular rule in each area of English whetear in semantic, linguistic, dialects, etc. Moreover, the insights about characteristic of English in each stage is so crucial for as the language learner especially for us who are giving to double down on linguistic world. We have to analyze the development from English structure form, not only from modern English but also in middle English and Old English. More than that, and we can begin to explain how it got to be as it is. For example, we can explain why it is that we have such apparently crazy spelling, how it is that words come into existence, in what stage it appear, why it is that sometimes we seem to have a choice of words to express more or less the same thing (e.g. fortunate and lucky), where the confusing apostrophe-s (e.g. student’s or students’) came from, why it is that we don’t all talk like the Queen or the people on the BBC; and so on. By looking at how English has changed, and the factors that have influenced those changes, we can begin to answer questions like these.
Delete3. Differences the historical and lingual aspects in old English and middle English
Deletea. Old English
Historical aspect:
The origins of Old English are directly related to the migration flows of Germanic tribes, towards the English islands: the Angles, Saxons, Jutes, and Frisians. The Angles coined the terms "English" and "English". Old English is the language brought by the Anglo-Saxon people who invaded the British Isles.
Lingual aspect:
And those related to changes in the linguistic aspect were brought by the Anglo-Saxons who invaded the British Isles. These Anglo-Saxons are Germanic speakers. That's why Old English grammar is similar to Germanic. At that time, English was called English.
For example : Noun (Noun), nouns in Old English have five grammatical cases (nominative, accusative, dative, genitive, and instrumental), three genders (masculine, feminine, and neutral), and two numbers (singular and plural, and the form strong or weak).
b. Middle English
Historical aspect:
Middle English began to emerge when the Normans invaded. During this period, English underwent significant changes in vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation, and writing. During this period, some grammars in Old English were simplified or even eliminated altogether.
Lingual aspect:
Those who are associated with changes in the next linguistic aspect are the Normans, when the Normans invaded. During this period, English experienced significant changes in vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation, and writing. It was also during this period that some grammars in Old English were simplified or even eliminated altogether. This Norman influence strengthened the continuity of changes in the English language over the following centuries and resulted in a language that is now known as Middle English. One of the changes is the increasing use of a unique aspect of English grammar called the continuous tense with the -ing suffix or suffix.
And another example in Noun (Noun), Just like Old English, Middle English also recognizes two numbers in nouns, namely singular and plural, and strong and weak. Initially, Middle English had four case grammars, namely nominative, accusative, dative, and genitive. But over time, the dative case is no longer used, while the genitive case is still used but rarely.
Compared to the more complex Old English, Middle English only has two endings for nouns, namely –es or –s for strong nouns, and –en or –n for weak nouns. The use of gender for nouns in Middle English is also reduced.
Name : Talitha Zuleika S
ReplyDeleteSRN : 191230161
Midterm Of History Of English
1. Why do people use English as a lingua franca language? Explain your opinion
based on the historical perspective!
• • I think the use of English is the formal language all over the world. And the English language appeared when the arrival of explorers from Germany to the British Isles. This event occurred during the reign of the Western Roman Empire (330-476 AD).
• These various mixtures eventually gave birth to English which was influenced by Celtic, German, Scandinavian, French (Norman), Latin, Greek, and others. English land was once a colony of Normandy. The people there also know French, especially to communicate with Normandy officials. While ordinary people or the lower class use a mixed language which is now known as English. According to research by Maad M. Mijwil, about 45% of English vocabulary comes from French. Another estimate puts the figure at 29% and that which has been put into Latin words is 25%, the remainder being used in legal texts.
Name: Putri Sadiah
ReplyDeleteSRN: 191230158
Class: TBI 6E
1. English became the lingua franca because of the conquest. If there is no conquest, English will not develop and even become an international language. If we look at history, Old English (Old English) was brought by three Germanic tribes who invaded and colonized the English in the 5th century AD. At that time the British still used the Cheltin language which in fact most speakers were also forced by the western and eastern colonizers who are now better known as Wales, or Scotland and Ireland. they were at that time called "Englisc" which comes from the words England and english. Until English has developed to Middle English and Modern English.
Conquest also increasingly spread to mainland America and Africa, the aim of which was to exploit existing commodities and spread the English language. in addition, to expand to Australia and its surroundings. In addition, the revolution in England made the economy more advanced, making English known to other countries.
2. One of the influencing factors is the time factor and the acquisition. because the development of the English language does not happen all at once but is divided into several periods. such as the emergence of English is marked by conquest so it is called Old English. then the language continues to change along with the times and the process of assimilation and acculturation that continues to demand changes in English.
Due to language assimilation, it continues to develop which is marked by changes in the way of pronunciation (spelling) in addition to vowels and consonants, in structure, sentence or grammar, vocabulary and others.
3. • From a historical the difference between Old English and Middle English
a. Old English
The origins of English lie in West Germanic languages which were brought to England when Germanic languages invaded this great continent. The language was a variety of different dialects because there were three most important tribes that invaded England at that time. Anglos, Saxons, and Jutes are these tribes and the dialect of the language used by them became the dialect of the original English.
b. Middle English
In the eleventh century, there were various Norman conquests in English territory, and this brought a big difference in the development of the English language. The Duke of Normandy, William, the conqueror, conquered England in 1066 and, with this conquest, many new impressions were introduced into the English language. Most important and most important is the impression of French mixed with the English spoken at the time. This is why modern English today can be seen as having its roots in French.
• From Lingual aspects
a. Influence:
Old English: Old English has a Latin influence.
Middle English: Middle English has a French influence.
•Sentence structure:
Old English: Word order and sentence structure are somewhat loose.
Middle English: Middle English has the same sentence structure as Modern English (Subject-verb-object).
•Pronouns:
Old English: Old English shows pronoun variations for the same pronoun in the same case for first and second person pronouns. For example, pe, pec for you in the accusative case.
Middle English: Middle English shows pronoun variations for the same pronoun in the same case. For example, hir, hire, heore, he, here for him in the genitive case.
• Pronunciation:
Old English: Old English had some silent letters. For example, in sēċean, you would not pronounce c. That means the word is pronounced as 'seek'.
Middle English: All written letters are spoken in Middle English.
2. Old English, Middle English, and Modern English are classifications of English, and they both show some differences between them. English is said to be the third most widely spoken native language in the world after Mandarin and Spanish. There is one important fact that many of us will know. This fact shows that English has become the official language in many other countries which are not considered as mother tongue. It is the popularity of this language that sets it apart from many other languages spoken around the world. In addition, English is also referred to as a global language used in all sects of life. However, with this comes another interesting fact that modern English, which can be used in this modern era, tends to be very different from the one used in the past. Now, modern speakers of this language cannot recognize the old versions of this language. This is due to the fact that this language has a history of around 1700 years which can be classified into three categories, namely Old English, Middle English, and Modern English.
ReplyDeleteOld English (450 AD - 1100 AD / Middle 5th century to Mid 11th century)
Middle England (1100 AD-1500 AD / late 11th century to late 15th century)
Modern English (from 1500 AD to present / late 15th century to present)
Old English
ReplyDeleteOld English is the language brought by the Anglo-Saxon people who invaded the British Isles. These Anglo-Saxons are Germanic speakers. That's why it's not surprising that Old English grammar is similar to Germanic. At that time, English was called English. Englisc was written using runes instead of the Latin script we know today.
Here is a brief explanation of Old English grammar:
Noun (Noun)
Nouns in Old English have five grammatical cases (nominative, accusative, dative, genitive, and instrumental), three genders (masculine, feminine, and neutral), and two numbers (singular and plural, and the form strong or weak).
Adjective (Adjective)
Old English adjectives must match the noun. For this reason, before using adjectives in Old English, we must first identify the gender and number of the noun. Adjectives have strong and weak endings. Weak suffixes are used together with the definite or possessive of the determinant.
Pronoun (Pronoun)
Just like adjectives, the use of pronouns in English must also match the noun.
Verb (Verb)
Old English verbs conjugate three people (first, second, and third person), two numbers (singular and plural), two tenses (present and past), three moods (indicative, subjunctive, and imperative), and two changes ( strong and weak). Verbs also have two forms infinitive and participle. Just like modern English, the use of verbs in Old English must also be in accordance with the subject.
Middle English
Middle English began to emerge when the Normans invaded. During this period, English underwent significant changes in vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation, and writing. During this period, some grammars in Old English were simplified or even eliminated altogether.
Middle English adopted some vocabulary from Norman French. This is mainly vocabulary in the fields of politics, law, religion, and the arts. Meanwhile, everyday English still uses vocabulary adopted from Germanic language with the influence of Old Norse.
Let's see a brief description of Middle English grammar below:
Noun (Noun)
Just like Old English, Middle English also recognizes two numbers in nouns, namely singular and plural, and strong and weak. Initially, Middle English had four case grammars, namely nominative, accusative, dative, and genitive. But over time, the dative case is no longer used, while the genitive case is still used but rarely.
Compared to the more complex Old English, Middle English only has two endings for nouns, namely –es or –s for strong nouns, and –en or –n for weak nouns.
The use of gender for nouns in Middle English is also reduced.
Pronoun (Pronoun)
Pronouns in Middle English are mostly derived from Old English, except for third-person plural pronouns borrowed from Old Norse.
Verb (Verb)
Verbs have endings that must be adjusted to the subject, tenses, and strong or weak forms.
For the present tense with strong and weak verbs, the ending –e is for the first-person singular subject. The suffix –en is for first-person plural subjects. The ending –st or –est is for the second person subject. The ending –eþ is for the third person subject.
For past tenses with weak verbs, the endings used are –ede, -ed, -de, -e, -t, or –te. As for the strong form of verb, the stem vowel is changed. For example, singen becomes songen.
These strong and weak verbs will later be known as irregular verbs and regular verbs in Modern English.
3. Differences between Old English and Modern English
ReplyDeleteOld English
Old English is the language brought by the Anglo-Saxon people who invaded the British Isles. These Anglo-Saxons are Germanic speakers. That's why it's not surprising that Old English grammar is similar to Germanic. At that time, English was called English. Englisc was written using runes instead of the Latin script we know today.
Middle English
Middle English (1100 AD-1500 AD / late 11th century to late 15th century) was the language spoken in parts of the British Empire where Saxon influence was very strong. Although their national language is French, many areas of the United Kingdom where the majority of the population are of Saxon descent speak this language. This language is a mixture of French and Old English.
Name :Evah Farihah
ReplyDeleteSRN : 191230155
Class : TBI 6E
I think people use the lingua franca because in communicating there must be a liaison language between countries that have speakers of different languages. And English is a language that is agreed to be an international language. According to Maad M. Mijwil of the Baghdad College of Economics Sciences University in his research entitled "Brief History of the English language", one version of the history of the English language is said to have been born due to the arrival of explorers from Germany to the British Isles. This event occurred during the reign of the Western Roman Empire (330-476 AD). The language now known as English was originally just a kind of dialect spoken by the West Saxons and was later influenced by immigrants from Germany and Scandinavia (the Vikings). This is where the old Celtic language began to be known. These various mixtures eventually gave birth to English which was influenced by Celtic, German, Scandinavian, French (Norman), Latin, Greek, and others. British lands were once a colony of Normandy. The people there also know French, especially to communicate with Normandy officials. Meanwhile, ordinary people or the lower class use a mixed language which is now known as English.
2. English as we know it today has a very long history of formation and evolution. It is estimated that more than 1500 years of the evolution of the English language took place. Historians divide this period of English evolution into three periods, namely the Old English period, the Middle English period (Middle English or Medieval English), and the Modern English period (Modern English). Due to its evolution, of course English in these three periods has differences.
DeleteOld English
Old English is the language brought by the Anglo-Saxon people who invaded the British Isles. These Anglo-Saxons are Germanic speakers. That's why it's not surprising that Old English grammar is similar to Germanic. At that time, English was called English. Englisc was written using runes instead of the Latin script we know today.
- Middle English
Middle English began to emerge when the Normans invaded. During this period, English underwent significant changes in vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation, and writing. During this period, some grammars in Old English were simplified or even eliminated altogether.
Middle English adopted some vocabulary from Norman French. This is mainly vocabulary in the fields of politics, law, religion, and the arts. Meanwhile, everyday English still uses vocabulary adopted from Germanic language with the influence of Old Norse.
Modern English or New English (New English) began with the Great Vowel Shift which made the English pronunciation system change significantly. Early 17th century texts, such as those by William Shakespeare and the King James Bible, use a vocabulary different from that of the earlier period of English. The vocabulary contained in the text is considered to be the beginning of the Modern English period. In this period, the use of second person pronouns, such as thou, thee, thine, thy began to be used and was quite popular.
3. Old English or commonly called Anglo-Saxon or its Indonesian language is Old English is the language used by the Saxons, a nomadic tribe that often inhabits British lands. This language was spoken by the Saxons on British soil, until they were expelled by settlers from the Kingdom of Normandy who later founded the Kingdom of England.
DeleteThe expulsion of the Saxons from Britain was the end of the use of Old English in Britain, which was later replaced by French as the national language of the United Kingdom.
Example :
Noun (Noun)
Nouns in Old English have five grammatical cases (nominative, accusative, dative, genitive, and instrumental), three genders (masculine, feminine, and neutral), and two numbers (singular and plural, and the form strong or weak).
Middle English or Indonesian Middle English is the language used in several areas of the British Empire where the influence of the Saxons is very strong. Although their national language is French, many areas in the United Kingdom where the majority of the population are descendants of the Saxon tribe use it. this language.. This language is a mixture of French and Old English.
example :
Noun (Noun)
Just like Old English, Middle English also recognizes two numbers in nouns, namely singular and plural, and strong and weak. Initially, Middle English had four case grammars, namely nominative, accusative, dative, and genitive. But over time, the dative case is no longer used, while the genitive case is still used but rarely. Compared to the more complex Old English, Middle English only has two endings for nouns, namely –es or –s for strong nouns, and –en or –n for weak nouns. The use of gender for nouns in Middle English is also reduced.
Name : Serlin Sarah Maulani
ReplyDeleteSRN : 191230160
Class : TBI 6 E
Courses : Historical of English
Midterm Test
1) English as an international language has a long history. Since ancient Rome, it was necessary to have a language that many people could understand, so that people from different countries could understand when communicating. Now that language is called the lingua franca. A lingua franca is a language used to communicate between people from different backgrounds. Initially, each region had a different lingua franca. Then it was mutually agreed that English as a common language. English is the oldest language in the world and emerged around 8 AD. English also experienced rapid development so that it became an international language.
English is actually not the native language of the people living in the British Isle. If traced from its origin, Old English is basically a type of Germanic language which is one of the branches of the Indo-European language (Indo-European language). This Old English language was originally brought by explorers in the 5th century AD from northern Europe. this nation of explorers who lived on the mainland of England came to be known as the Anglo-Saxons. The word English itself also comes from where they come from, namely English from the words Anglia and Saxon which in its development later changed to English.
After entering England for the first time, this Old English language quickly spread throughout the British Isle Islands, especially Wales, Cornwall, Cumbria and Southern Scotland, which actually already has a native language called Celtic. because of the invasion and colonization of the Romans and French For hundreds of years this old English language then experienced assimilation and mixing with other languages, namely Celtic (the native language of people who came from the northern part of the island), Latin (brought by the Roman conquerors) and French or French (the Roman conquistadors). immigrants and rivals) in England. The existence of the Romans and their descendants in England (Anglo-Norman) for a long time made the Old English language slowly began to spread throughout the island including the northern region (Scotland) brought by Anglo-Norman nobles who emigrated to the north. This language was assimilated with the original (Celtic) language, which was then known as Scottish English.
in the 12th century AD, the Anglo-Norman troops were sent to the island across the South, namely Ireland which eventually fell to English rule and the Old English language began to spread there. the number of ancient native English speakers living in the British Isles did not increase significantly over the next 300 years. but by the end of the 16th century their numbers had grown enormously until they reached about 5 to 7 million inhabitants. this population doubled during the reign of Queen Elizabeth 1 (1603) to Queen Elizabeth 2 (1952) to 250 million. This population of native English speakers from the British Isles currently lives outside the island, which is commonly known as the Americans. The spread of English in America has a complex history of its own and a very significant influence on the modern world.
2) English has been around since around AD 700. English evolution occurs in 3 stages: Old English is influenced by Germanic tribes, mid-English developing with more influenceful French after 1066 AD, and modern English developed from around 1500 m to the modern language we all know today. Many external and internal factors can cause this to occur like geographical factors, battles, migration, marriage, divorce and others.
ReplyDeleteThe English language has undergone such change in the course of time that one cannot read Old English without special study.
In general the differences that one notices between Old and Modern English concern spelling and pronunciation, the lexicon, and the grammar.
The pronunciation of Old English words commonly differs somewhat from that of their modern equivalents. The long vowels in particular have undergone considerable modification. Thus the Old English word stān is the same word as Modern English stone, but the vowel is different. A similar correspondence is apparent in hālig—holy, gān—go, bān—bone, rāp—rope, hlāf— loaf, bāt—boat.
A second feature of Old English that would quickly become apparent to a modern reader is the rarity of those words derived from Latin and the absence of those from French which form so large a part of our present vocabulary. Such words make up more than half of the words now in common use. An examination of the words in an Old English dictionary shows that about 85 percent of them are no longer in use. Those that survive, to be sure, are basic elements of our vocabulary and by the frequency with which they recur make up a large part of any English sentence. Apart from pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliary verbs, and the like, they express fundamental concepts like mann (man), wīf (wife, woman), cild (child), hūs (house), weall (wall), mete (meat, food), gœrs (grass), lēaf (leaf), fugol (fowl, bird), gōd (good), hēah (high), strang (strong), etan (eat), drincan (drink), (sleep), libban (live), feohtan (fight). But the fact remains that a considerable part of the vocabulary of Old English is unfamiliar to the modern reader.
The third and most fundamental feature that distinguishes Old English from the language of today is its grammar. Inflectional languages fall into two classes: synthetic and analytic. A synthetic language is one that indicates the relation of words in a sentence largely by means of inflections.
Modern English is an analytic, Old English a synthetic language. In its grammar Old English resembles modern German. Theoretically the noun and adjective are inflected for four cases in the singular and four in the plural, although the forms are not always distinctive, and in addition the adjective has separate forms for each of the three genders. The inflection of the verb is less elaborate than that of the Latin verb, but there are distinctive endings for the different persons, numbers, tenses, and moods.
NAME : TRESNA FEBRIANI
ReplyDeleteSRN : 191230170
CLASS : TBI 6E
1. About fifty years ago the notion of English as a true global language
was merely a theoretical prediction which is still diffuse and vague. However, realities have created it as a real world language at the present time. People in every part of the world feel its urgent role in their life: for academic purposes, for business goals and for other purposes. English is spoken
by people throughout the world as their first language, second language and
foreign language. Indeed, English as a lingua Franca language.
2. The Kentish dialect was considerably extended and was called South Eastern accordingly. All five Middle English dialects (Northern, West Midland, East Midland, South Western, and South Eastern) went their own ways and developed their own characteristics. The so-called Katherine Group of writings (c. 1180–1210), associated with Hereford, a town not far from the Welsh border, adhered most closely to native traditions, and there is something to be said for regarding this West Midland dialect, least disturbed by French and Scandinavian intrusions, as a kind of Standard English in the High Middle Ages.
In early Middle English short vowels of whatever origin were lengthened in the open stressed syllables of disyllabic words. An open syllable is one ending in a vowel. Both syllables in Old English nama “name,” mete “meat, food,” nosu “nose,” wicu “week,” and duru “door” were short, and the first syllables, being stressed, were lengthened to nāme, mēte, nōse, wēke, and dōre in the 13th and 14th centuries.
3. Old English is the name given to the earliest recorded stage of the English language, up to approximately 1150AD (when the Middle English period is generally taken to have begun). It refers to the language as it was used in the long period of time from the coming of Germanic invaders and settlers to Britain—in the period following the collapse of Roman Britain in the early fifth century—up to the Norman Conquest of 1066, and beyond into the first century of Norman rule in England. It is thus first and foremost the language of the people normally referred to by historians as the Anglo-Saxons.
The chronological boundaries of the Middle English period are not easy to define, and scholarly opinions vary. The dates that OED3 has settled on are 1150-1500. (Before 1150 being the Old English period, and after 1500 being the early modern English period.) In terms of ‘external’ history, Middle English is framed at its beginning by the after-effects of the Norman Conquest of 1066, and at its end by the arrival in Britain of printing (in 1476) and by the important social and cultural impacts of the English Reformation (from the 1530s onwards) and of the ideas of the continental Renaissance.
3. a) Old English
ReplyDeleteHistorical aspect
Old English (OE), lasted from about 450 to 1100 AD.
The Old English period in English history and literature undergo several stages of development due to invasion or invasion of other tribes.
Old English language is influenced by North Germanic languages; Old Norwegian spoken by the Vikings who invaded and eventually settled in northeastern England. The following is a more detailed explanation of the Old English language.
Lingual aspect
Old English has 3 genders (masculine, feminine, neuter), Old English has a lot of inflections because many cases are needed, Different vowel sounds and writing, Greatest linguistic influence from Germany (Anglo-Saxon), Old English is very different from the grammar, pronunciation, or spelling.
b) Middle English
Historical aspect
Middle English (ME) period, covers roughly 1100-1500.
The beginning of the Middle English period has been set by scholars to the end of the 11th century or even a later date. The traditional periodization distinguishes three subperiods of Middle English:
1) Early Middle English (1100–1250)
2) Ordinary Middle English (1250–1400)
3) Late Middle English (1400–1500).
Lingual aspects
Gender has started to be abandoned, Inflection decreases with simplification of cases, Vocal sound changed from Old English, Writing is approaching Modern English, The greatest language influence from France (Normandy)
Nafa Nabilah Azzahra
ReplyDelete181230166
TBI 6 E
1. English as an international language has a long history. English is actually not the native language of the people living in the British Isle. If traced from its origin, Old English is basically a type of Germanic language which is one of the branches of the Indo-European language (Indo-European language). This Old English language was originally brought by explorers in the 5th century AD from northern Europe. this nation of explorers who lived on the mainland of England came to be known as the Anglo-Saxons. The word English itself also comes from where they come from, namely English from the words Anglia and Saxon which in its development later changed to English. After entering England for the first time, this Old English language quickly spread throughout the British Isle Islands, especially Wales, Cornwall, Cumbria and Southern Scotland, which actually already has a native language called Celtic. because of the invasion and colonization of the Romans and French For hundreds of years this old English language then experienced assimilation and mixing with other languages, namely Celtic (the native language of people who came from the northern part of the island), Latin (brought by the Roman conquerors) and French or French (the Roman conquistadors). immigrants and rivals) in England. The existence of the Romans and their descendants in England (Anglo-Norman) for a long time made the Old English language slowly began to spread throughout the island including the northern region (Scotland) brought by Anglo-Norman nobles who emigrated to the north. This language was assimilated with the original (Celtic) language, which was then known as Scottish English.
2. English derives from the fusion of various related dialects, collectively today known as Old English, which were brought to the east coast of the Isle of Britain by Germanic settlers (Anglo-Saxons) in the 5th century; the English word' comes from the name Angles. The Anglo-Saxons themselves came from the Angeln region (currently Schleswig-Holstein, Germany). Early English was also influenced by Old Norse after the Vikings conquered England in the 9th and 10th centuries. Vikings who spoke Old Norse (or Old Irish), this dialect found certain words that are still used today, such as “take, give, and skin”. Old Irish left its mark on English by influencing basic grammatical rules, such as "they, them, and their" and "-s" in the third person (singular).The Norman conquest of England in the 11th century led to English also being influenced by Norman French, and English vocabulary and spelling began to be influenced by Roman Latin, which became known as Middle English. Norman caused serious linguistic changes in English, as it became the language of the Court. This language introduces a great deal of diversity in Middle English vocabulary. In most cases there are 2 words used to refer to the same thing. There will be the word Saxon, which is of Germanic origin and the word of Norman origin. The term Saxon was used by the people, while the Norman term was used by the nobility, for example "pig" vs. "pork" and "ox" vs. "beef". Many words have been taken from the Norman language, such as "uthority", "government", "pardon", "battle", "cream", "vinegar", "anatomy", "nature", "table", and "honour". The Vowel Shift that began in southern England in the 15th century is one of the historic events that marked the transition from Middle English to Modern English. In addition to Anglo-Saxons and Norman French, a large number of words in English also have Latin roots, because Latin was the lingua franca of the Christian Church and the main language of European intellectual circles, and has become the vocabulary basis for modern English. English continued to evolve with the influence of Latin and Greek. English writers write literary texts, while scientific research (certain medical and legal texts) is written in Latin. This is why words, such as, "maternity, atmosphere, or skeleton" are borrowed from Latin. The Greek language equally leaves its mark with words, such as, "anthropology, archaeology, and geography." Having experienced a diverse mix of words from different languages throughout history, modern English has a very large vocabulary, with complex and irregular spellings, especially vowels. Modern English is not only a blend of European languages, but also from various languages around the world.
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• Dutch words like, “yacht or wagon”
• Arabic words such as, “admiral, alembic, cotton, elixir, alcohol, algebra, and apricot”
• Hindi words like, “curry” or “arsenic”
• Persian words like, “bazaar” and
• Turkish words like, “coffee and |caviar”
• Native American words such as, “canoe, lama, manioc, tobacco, and chocolate”.
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ReplyDelete3. Old English (450 AD - 1100 AD)
ReplyDeleteThe language is influenced by North Germanic languages; Old Norwegian spoken by the Vikings who invaded and eventually settled in northeastern England. The early settlers spoke Germanic languages from different branches. Many of their vocabulary roots are the same or similar, although the grammar is somewhat more different including the prefixes, suffixes, and laws of inflection of many words. The Germanic language of these Old English-speaking Britons, influenced by contact with the Norwegians who invaded Britain. The following is a more detailed explanation of the Old English language.
For example:
OE vowels: graphs and sounds
The graphs or letters used in OE to represent vowel sounds were a, æ, e, i, o, u, y. These seven letters were used for both short and long vowel sounds (a total of 14). Texts typically signal the long vowel quality by a line over the letter, as in ¯a (as opposed to a). OE speakers also appear to have made use of the unstressed vowel schwa, as well as of four diphthongs, spelt eo, e¯o, ea and e¯a (note again the distinctions of length).
Poetry in Old English:
hie dygel lond
warigeath, wulf-hleothu, windige naessas,
fregne fen-gelad, thaer fyrgen-stream
under naessa genipu nither gewiteth,
flod under foldan. Nis thaet feor heonon
Middle English (1150 – 1500)
he history of Middle English is often divided into three periods: (1) Early Middle English, from about 1100 to about 1250, during which the Old English system of writing was still in use; (2) the Central Middle English period from about 1250 to about 1400, which was marked by the gradual formation of literary dialects, the use of an orthography greatly influenced by the Anglo-Norman writing system, the loss of pronunciation of final unaccented -e, and the borrowing of large numbers of Anglo-Norman words; the period was especially marked by the rise of the London dialect, in the hands of such writers as John Gower and Geoffrey Chaucer; and (3) Late Middle English, from about 1400 to about 1500, which was marked by the spread of the London literary dialect and the gradual cleavage between the Scottish dialect and the other northern dialects. During this period the basic lines of inflection as they appear in Modern English were first established. Among the chief characteristicdifferences between Old and Middle English were the substitution of natural gender in Middle English for grammatical gender and the loss of the old system of declensions in the noun and adjective and, largely, in the pronoun.
The dialects of Middle English are usually divided into three large groups: (1) Southern (subdivided into Southeastern, or Kentish, and Southwestern), chiefly in the counties south of the River Thames; (2) Midland (corresponding roughly to the Mercian dialect area of Old English times) in the area from the Thames to southern South Yorkshire and northern Lancashire; and (3) Northern, in the Scottish Lowlands, Northumberland, Cumbria, Durham, northern Lancashire, and most of Yorkshire.
The differences about Old English and Middle English found in the area of control and the language of influence of the country of origin.
Old English (Anglo-Saxon or Englisc) is an early form of English that used in England and southern Scotland between the mid-5th and 8th centuries. It is a West Germanic language and is very close to old Frisian and old Saxon and also has very strong influence from old Norse, part of the North Germanic language group. Old English was very different from modern English; has a lot of Germanic words, and the grammar is closer to German and Latin.
Whereas The Middle English period was one of significant literary achievement, seeing the production of both translations and original works in both English and French. In the two hundred or so years that French was ascendant, the literature enjoyed and patronized by the court was inevitably composed in this medium
Name: Syarifah
ReplyDeleteSRN: 191230152
Class: TBI 6E
1. English as a lingua franca functions on two different levels: on a local level and on a global level. In her book 'Understanding English as a Lingua Franca". Barbara Seidelhofer determines these levels as "localised" and "global (Seidelhofer, 2011, p. 4). English as a lingua franca functions on the local level as a language uniting people of one country in which various languages are spoken by its population. This local role of ELF is seen in Nigerian English for example, where English being an official language unites people of some other major languages of this country, such as Hausa, Igbo or Yoruba. The global level on which ELF functions as a communication tool among people from different countries of the world is truly impressive. English as a lingua franca functions on the global level as a language uniting people from different countries/of different first languages. This global role of ELF affects almost every domain of the world's society. While defining English as a lingua franca, linguists have encountered difficulties connected with appraisal if to include or not include native speakers of English as participants in ELF. Seidelhofer points out that such definitions of a lingua franca similar to the above-mentioned definition by Jenkins, refer to a local lingua franca that occurs in particular regions where it unites people of various first languages within a country or a community.
The need for a common language functioning on a global level appeared in the 1950s with the establishment of international organisations such as the United Nations, the World Bank, UNESCO, UNICEF or the World Health Organization.
Within these organisations, an official language or various official languages were established in order to minimise the translation. Subsequently, the invention of new communication technologies such as computers, telegraphs and later the take off of the Internet in the 1990s opened a free pathway for the language of the economic superpower, the United States of America, to become worldwide. There were two crucial actions that enabled English to elevate to a global position. Firstly, spreading the language by its native speakers, i.e. by colonisation. And secondly, people from all over the world decide to learn English as their foreign language. Crystal states: "A language achieves a genuinely global status when it develops a special role that is recognized in every country. Such role can be achieved for example by giving the language an official status within a country with no native speakers. This could be done by either establishing it as an official language to be used as a tool for communication or by establishing it as the main foreign language to be taught within the educational system. By that a language spreads around the world and secures its position in countries where this language is not the speakers mother tongue. Therefore, while describing the spread of English into different parts of the globe, it is important to note not only the number of the language native and second language speakers but also its geographical arrangement. This geographical criterion proves to be crucial for a language aspiring to become globally used. For example, although Mandarin Chinese has the most native speakers in the world, it is mainly found in Asia and not as much in the Western Hemisphere, English on the other hand, holds an official or semi official status in over 60 countries around the world and 20 countries gave English a primary status. These countries include for instance the U.S., the United Kingdom, Ghana, India, South Africa and many more
2. Two main factors: The Norman invasion and political unification. The Norman invasion introduced a great many French loanwords, some 40% of English vocabulary by Chaucer’s time. The case system of nouns and adjectives and verb declensions simplified too; whether as a result of Norman influence is not certain; it happened in the North Germanic languages without foreign influence, and so the simplification could have been a natural internal process. Political unification led to an amalgamation of the many separate languages and dialects into one under the pressure of the need for everyone to communicate. Such a process can be observed in the current lessening of the differences between US and British English, a process abhorred by many on both sides of the Atlantic.
ReplyDelete3. •Differences Between Old English and Middle English•
1. The main difference between Old English and Middle English lies in their different influence. Latin, Celtic, and Norse were the three languages that heavily influenced Old English. However, Middle English was influenced by the French language.
2. Old English was in no way of what you’d call a monolithic language- the language had vast variations depending on the different regions it spread to. However, the four main variations were West Saxon, Kentish, Northumbrian, and Mercian. On the other hand, Middle English, in the beginning, had its share of different dialects. But, after a while, it became the language in which the artists composed, and hence got standardized.
3. Old English was way more complex as compared to Middle English. The verbs and nouns in Old English had many forms which became unnecessary complex for people. However, Middle English was simpler in comparison to Old English.
4. Old English had very little or no resemblance to Modern English, but Middle English resembled Modern English to a great extent.
5. The vocabulary of Old English had many German and Latin words in it, but the Middle English vocabulary mainly had French words, and concepts and terms like law and religion came into being.
6. There were a lot of silent letters in the alphabet system of Old English. In the case of Middle English, the language at first had no silent letters, but later on, the ‘e’ became silent in some situations.
7. The cases were mainly instrumental in Old English. In Middle English, we see a shift towards different prepositional constructions.
•Comparison Between Old English and Middle English•
*Old English
-Classification:
Old English can further be classified into three more sub-divisions- Prehistoric, Early Old England, and Late Old English.
-Period:
It is recorded in history that Old English was spoken from about the 5th century till around the 12th century.
-Origin:
Old English is the earliest language recorded in history books to be ever spoken. We are still not sure how it came into being.
-Word order:
The word order of old english was not fixed
-Standardization:
Old English has never been standardized. Middle English was standardized ages after
*Middle English
-Classification:
Having developed from Late Old English, Middle English grew popular and soon people started to compose in Middle English. Later the Late Middle English came to be known as Early Modern English
-Period:
Middle English came into being from the second half of the 11th century while the Old English was still in use till the last parts of the 15th century.
-Origin:
Middle English came into being from the Late Old English after the occurrence of the conquest of the Normans.
-Word order:
The word order of Middle English was almost fixed.
-Standardization:
Middle English was standardized ages after its existence.
Name : Siti Komariah Ulfayati
ReplyDeleteSRN : 191230142
Class : TBI 6E
Mid Term Test
Answer
1. English is the lingua franca because English is the oldest language in the world and emerged around 8 AD. English also experienced rapid development so that it became an international language. Quoted by Wonderpolis, historians trace the origins of English to three Germanic tribes, namely: Angles, Saxons, and Rami who invaded Great Britain in the 5th century. In fact, the people living in England at that time spoke Celtic language instead of English. The colonists eventually pushed the people north and west into what is now Wales, Scotland and Ireland. Angles that attack comes from "Englaland" and the language used is called "Englisc". So from there, English is now the English language that is used to communicate.
2. The factor of the emergence of the English stage began to take shape during the invasion by three Germanic tribes, Rami, Saxons, and Angles. They were looking for new lands to conquer, which finally they arrived in England. The word England (UK) comes from the Old English word, namely Engla-land, which means "land of the Angles". In short, the development of English is divided into 3 periods. First “Old English” (around 450 – 1100 AD), “Middle English” (1100 – 1500 AD), and “Modern English” (1500 – present).
- Old english
That OE, like any other living language, was not uniform across the general speech community. There were,.for example, regional dialectal divisions, initially established by the settlement of the various Germanic tribes in different areas of England, and continued by the varying rates and directions of change that each underwent in its particular environment. The available evidence has allowed scholars to distinguish four main dialects: Northumbrian, Mercian (sometimes collectively known as Anglian), West Saxon and Kentish. Northumbrian and Mercian were spoken in the areas of mainly Anglian settlement north of the Thames, while Kentish emerged in its namesake Kent, which became home to mainly Jutish communities. Textual material for these dialects is scant – few charters, runic inscriptions, brief fragments of verse and of biblical translation have survived in Northumbrian and Mercian, but even less now exists in Kentish
- Middle English
Five are generally recognized: Northern, Midland (East and West), South-Eastern and South-Western. Northern (derived from the OE Northumbrian dialect) stretched from the middle of Yorkshire to Scotland and so subsumed Scots, the English variety of the lowlands. Scots came to be used as a literary standard in Scotland from the late fourteenth century onwards, and has been especially noted as the medium for the work of the fifteenth-century ‘Chaucerian poets’ of the Scottish court. We will not pursue the history of Scots here, but the interested reader is referred to Barber (1993), Görlach (1991) and Wales (2002). As to the other dialects, South-Eastern derived from OE Kentish and South-Western from OE West Saxon. Mercian was the OE antecedent of Midland (stretching from London to Gloucestershire), which is traditionally separated into East Midland and West Midland. Fennell (2001: 109) also distinguishes a sixth dialect, East Anglian, stating that texts from that particular area show marked differences from its neighbouring East Midlands variety.
- Modern english
Modern English or New English (New English) began with the Great Vowel Shift which made the English pronunciation system change significantly. Early 17th century texts, such as those by William Shakespeare and the King James Bible, use a vocabulary different from that of the earlier period of English. The vocabulary contained in the text is considered to be the beginning of the Modern English period
3. -Old english
ReplyDeleteIt has three subdivisions, prehistoric- between c.450- 650.Early Old English between c.650- 900 and Late Old English between c.900-1066.
Old English was not a monolithic language; it had multiple variations in different regions. It had developed from languages and dialects of many different tribes; each dialect was spoken by independent kingdom. There were four main dialects, Mercian (dialect of Mercia), Kentish (dialect of Kent), West Saxon and Northumbrian (dialect of Northumbria)
-Middle English
Middle English was spoken during late 11th century to late 15th century. It developed from the Late Old English, which was spoken in Norman England.(1106-1154). Early Middle English developed from late Old English in the second half of 11th century. It was spoken during 12th and 13th centuries. By the second half of 14th century, it became popular as a literary language. Finally in the 15th century the Late Middle English started transitioning into Early Modern English.
It had many dialects in different regions but during 15th century, printing began in England (1470) and the language started becoming more standardized.
1. The term lingua franca or “Frankish language” originates from the Middle Ages between the 15th and 19th century, where in the Mediterranean this term signified a pidgin based on Italian and French, which was developed by the traders and used for illegible communication. However, a language holding a status of a lingua franca already appeared in the ancient times. When the reaches of the Roman Empire spread from the Mediterranean, Europe and touched Africa and Asia, Latin held the status of a dominant language. Latin was also used by the Roman Catholic Church, extensively in European culture, law, science, philosophy and religion. It remained a lingua franca among European scholars until the 18th century. Even to this day, supported by the fledgling of science as a study and the simultaneous spread of Latin, many terms used in medicine or philosophy originate from Latin. Another language acting as a lingua franca both in the past and the present 8 day is Portuguese. During the Age of Exploration occurring in the 15th – 18th centuries, where Portugal belonged to one of the major European colonisers, Portuguese served as a lingua franca in distinct parts of Africa and Asia, where it was used for trade and diplomatic purposes.
ReplyDelete2. The Old English (OE) period can be regarded as starting around AD 450, with the arrival of West Germanic settlers (Angles, Saxons and Jutes) in southern Britain. They brought with them dialects closely related to the continental language varieties which would produce modern German, Dutch and Frisian.
This Germanic basis for English can be seen in much of our everyday vocabulary – compare heart (OE heorte), come (OE cuman) and old (OE eald) with German Herz, kommen and alt.
Many grammatical features also date back to this time: irregular verbs such as drink ~ drank ~ drunk (OE drincan ~ dranc ~ (ge)druncen) parallel German trinken ~ trank ~ getrunken. Similarly, many OE pronunciations are preserved in modern spellings e.g. knight (OE cniht, German Knecht), in which k would have been pronounced and gh sounded like ch in Scots loch. OE, also called Anglo-Saxon, was not heavily influenced by the Celtic languages spoken by the native inhabitants of the British Isles, borrowing only a few words (e.g. brock, tor) associated with local wildlife and geography (but many place and river names e.g. Dover, Avon). However, Latin, introduced to Britain by the Romans, and reinforced in its influence by the conversion of the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity during the 7th century, had a significant impact, providing both vocabulary (e.g. master, mass, school) and the basis for the writing system.
OE was mostly written using the Latin alphabet, supplemented by a few Germanic runic letters to represent sounds not found in Latin e.g. þ, which represented the th sounds in thin or this. (A relic of þ survives as y in modern signs like Ye Olde Tea Shoppe.)
The later Viking settlements in many parts of the British Isles also resulted in substantial borrowing of basic vocabulary: sky, get and they derive from Old Norse.
Norse influence may also have contributed to an important grammatical change, which mainly occurred in English between the 11th and 14th centuries, and which marked the transition to Middle English (ME) (conventionally dated c.1100-1500). OE had indicated many grammatical categories and relationships by attaching inflections (endings) to word roots, in a similar way to Latin or German.
ReplyDeleteThus, in the OE clause wolde guman findan ‘he wanted to find the man’, the –e on wolde indicates a 3rd person singular subject: ‘he wanted’; the –n on guman indicates that ‘the man’ is the object, not the subject of the verb; and the –an on findan indicates an infinitive: ‘to find’.
In ME, changes in the pronunciation of unstressed syllables, mainly occurring at the ends of words, caused most inflections to merge indistinguishably, or be dropped altogether. This inflectional breakdown could have created ambiguity (e.g. wanted man find), but speakers compensated by using more rigid word order (subject – verb – object, usually), among other strategies.
Another important feature of the early ME period was the influence of Norman (and later, central) French, following the Norman conquest of 1066. French dominance and prestige in such contexts as the royal court, law, the church and education encouraged extensive borrowing of vocabulary e.g. French words for farmed animals pork, beef and mutton (modern French porc, bœuf and mouton) were adopted alongside native words swine, cow and sheep.
Modern English (ModE) can be regarded externally as starting with the introduction of printing. Caxton’s selection of an East Midlands/London variety of English for the first printed books at the end of the 15th century contributed to the development of a standardised variety of the language, with fixed spelling and punctuation conventions and accepted vocabulary and grammatical forms.
The perception of this standard variety as correct, ‘good’ English was also supported by attempts at codification, notably Johnson’s dictionary and many prescriptive grammars of the 18th century. The vocabulary of English was consciously elaborated as it came to be used for an increasing variety of purposes, including translations of classical works rediscovered in the Renaissance, a burgeoning creative literature, and the description of new scientific activities. Thousands of words were borrowed from Latin and Greek in this period e.g. education, metamorphosis, critic, conscious.
An internal feature which characterised the movement towards ModE was the Great Vowel Shift – an important series of linked pronunciation changes which mainly took place between the 15th and 17th centuries. In ME, the sound system had contained broadly corresponding series of long and short vowels, represented in writing by the same letters.
For instance, the vowel in caas ‘case’ was simply a longer version of the vowel in blak ‘black’; similarly mete ‘meat’ (long vowel) and hell (short vowel), or fine (long) and pit (short). In early ModE, people began to pronounce the long vowels differently from the corresponding short vowels: long e ended up sounding like long i, leaving a gap in the sound system; this was filled by shifting the pronunciation of long a to sound like long e, and so on.
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ReplyDelete-Old English
ReplyDeleteis the earliest historical form of the English language, which was spoken in England and some parts of Scotland during the early Middle Ages. It was brought to England by the Anglo-Saxon settlers during the 5th century. It was used in Britain from 400s through the 1100s.
Old English has four main dialectal forms: Northumbrian, Kentish, Mercian, and West Saxon. Its closest relatives are Old Saxon and Old Frisian. The grammar of Old English is somewhat similar to modern German. The word order is much freer, but nouns, pronouns, adjectives and verbs have many inflectional forms and endings. Like any other old language, it is very different from its modern version; therefore, speakers of Modern English find it very difficult to understand it without study. Old English vocabulary mostly contained Germanic words; most of these words do not exist in the Modern English vocabulary as these words were later replaced by Latin and French words. Words with Latin origins such as cleric, abbot, nun, hymn, temple, silk, purple, beet, lentil, pear, radish, doe, oyster, cannon, ark, alter, and alms entered into the English vocabulary during the later Old English period.
The earliest Old English inscriptions used a runic system, but this was replaced by a version of the Latin alphabet from about the 9th century. The earliest written work in Old English dates back to the 7th century.
- Middle English
refers to a collection of the varieties of English that replaced Old English after the Norman quest (1066). Middle English developed out of late Old English, but there are drastic changes in grammar, pronunciation, and spelling between these two versions. Many Old English grammatical features were simplified; for examples, noun, verb, and adjective inflections were simplified in Modern English so as the reduction of many grammatical cases. The dative and instrumental cases of Old English were replaced by with prepositional constructions in Early Middle English.
Everyday vocabulary mostly remained Germanic, but areas such as law, politics, religion and arts saw an adoption of Norman French vocabulary. Although the writing customs varied widely during this period, a standard based on the London dialect became established aided by the invention of the printing press. This standard is the foundation of Modern English spelling. Therefore, Modern English speakers can understand Middle English better than Old English. Wycliffe and Geoffrey Chaucer are notable writers who wrote in Middle English.
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ReplyDeleteName : Ahmad Hapiduddin
ReplyDeleteNIM : 191230172
Class : TBI 6E
Midterm Test
1. Since ancient Rome, it was necessary to have a language that many people could understand. So that people from different countries can understand when communicating. Hence it is called the lingua franca. Lingua franca is the language used to communicate between people from various backgrounds. Initially, each region had a different lingua franca. Then it was mutually agreed that English as a common language. English is the oldest language in the world and emerged around 8 AD. Then it experienced rapid development until it became an international language. And why is English used as a lingua franca? From a historical perspective, I think there are factors that make English the lingua franca, namely that England is a colonial country. The British state is known as a colonial state in other countries. In addition, as the ruler of the world at that time, because it was a developed country, Britain had colonized countries on almost every continent, such as in Asia there were Singapore, Malaysia, India and even Indonesia, then in Africa there were Nigeria, South Africa, etc., in America there were Jamaica countries and in Africa. Oceana has Australia and New Zealand etc and in Europe there is Giblartar, Malta etc. so many British colonies, so the English language spread and many people in the colony who studied. Like it or not, colonized countries had to use English to communicate. It even became the official language.
English at this time is the result of acculturation and a fairly long process from various nations and languages which may cause English to have several unique characteristics such as inconsistent with pronunciation, grammar and others. The factor that causes people to divide English into several stages is because there were invasions from various nations that entered England, and they applied their native language in England or acculturated their native language into the existing English language, thus forming vocabulary and grammar. new language. as in Old English, which is marked by the entry or invasion of the Anglo-Saxons to England and ends when the Norman-French invasion of England or the start of Middle England. This is certainly the most influential factor in the change of language from Anglo-Saxon which absorbs a lot of Germanic language to Norman-French which uses a lot of French. there is acculturation in this.
ReplyDeleteFurthermore, it will be explained in detail about these changes in terms of history and language changes:
Phonological Change
There are some differences between Middle English and modern English consonant phonemes The Middle English consonant phoneme /x/ is not used in modern English, for example in the word licht (NE: light 'light') [lixt]. In addition, there are additional phonemes /Ʒ/ which were developed from the /zy/ group in vision ‘view’ [viƷn], and the phoneme /ŋ/ as in the word long ‘long’ [lɔŋ].
Morphological Changes
Like phonological rules, morphological rules can be omitted, added, or changed. For example, some modern English suffixes are taken from fused Old English words. Meanwhile, there are some old English derivation affixes that are no longer used, namely -bǣre and –bora.
Syntactic Change
Word order in Old English sentences varied more than in modern English because Old English had an extensive system of markers. Modern English has an SVO sentence structure, while Old English has a SVO, SOV, and VSO sentence structure.
Lexical Change
Lexical There are two types of lexical changes, namely addition and subtraction. In the first lexical change, vocabulary expansion is carried out through the process of word formation or absorption. Word formation includes the derivation of forms from self names, integration, reverse derivation, acronyms, fragments, fictitious, and compounding. Derivation of forms from self-names or eponyms is the process of forming words taken from the names of people, places, or things. Example: paparazzo (singular form of paparazzi) is taken from the name of the news photographer Signor Paparazzo.
3. Old English
ReplyDeleteOrigin
Old English was spoken from mid 5th century to the mid-12th century. It was a West Germanic language of the 5th century. The origin of the old English started from ingvaeonic also called “Germanic of the North Sea”. Ingvaeonic was named after a West Germanic proto-tribe cultural group called Ingaevones. This language was a grouping of Old Frisian, Old Saxon and Old English. Later it developed into Anglo- Saxon language, the language spoken by people living in parts of modern England and Southeastern lands of Scotland. Anglo–Saxon was developed only after 7th century after Christianization. It was constantly influenced by many languages.
History
It has three subdivisions, prehistoric- between c.450- 650.Early Old English between c.650- 900 and Late Old English between c.900-1066.
Development
Old English was influenced by Latin, Norse and Celtic. Latin influenced it in three periods, firstly, when the Anglo-Saxons went to Britain, secondly when the Latin speaking priests converted the Anglo- Saxons to Christianity and lastly when the Normans conquered England in 1066.
The second language influencing old English was Norse; it began with the Scandinavian words being introduced after the Vikings invaded England in the 9th and 10th centuries.
Celtic’s major influence was mainly on syntax and not on vocabulary.
Dialect
Old English was not a monolithic language; it had multiple variations in different regions. It had developed from languages and dialects of many different tribes; each dialect was spoken by independent kingdom. There were four main dialects, Mercian (dialect of Mercia), Kentish (dialect of Kent), West Saxon and Northumbrian (dialect of Northumbria)
Morphology
The morphology included accusative, dative, nominative and instrumental.
Orthography
At first it was written in runes then in half uncial till 9th century later in insular script till 12th century.
Middle English
ReplyDeleteOrigin
Middle English was spoken during late 11th century to late 15th century. It developed from the Late Old English, which was spoken in Norman England.(1106-1154)
History
Early Middle English developed from late Old English in the second half of 11th century. It was spoken during 12th and 13th centuries. By the second half of 14th century, it became popular as a literary language. Finally in the 15th century the Late Middle English started transitioning into Early Modern English.
Development
Middle English gradually ended the Wessex, as the writing language and emerged as the focal language for writers and poets. Many regions had their own dialects and there were variety of different writing styles. It became more prominent in the 14th century, in the 12th and 13th century it was more Anglo-Norman.
Dialects
It had many dialects in different regions but during 15th century, printing began in England (1470) and the language started becoming more standardized.
Morphology
The language became more like Modern West Frisian, a Dutch related language than the Germanic, because of its simplification.
Orthography
All the letters were pronounced in Middle English there were no “silents” but by Chaucer’s time the final “e” became silent.
Old English vocabulary is very different from Middle English and modern English. For example, in Old English the word hāmhome' in sentence (2) becomes [hƆ:Þm] in Middle English, and [həυm] in modern English. From a morphological point of view, affixation in Old English is significantly different from modern English. The suffix –an in sendan(sent'sending') indicates the past tense used in the plural subject hī 'they'. In addition, from a syntactic point of view, sentences (1) and (2) above have a very different sentence structure from modern English. In sentence (1) the verb is at the end of the sentence which is preceded by the subject and object and in sentence (2) the verb is located before the subject and object. In fact, some old English words are no longer used, such as the words sige 'victory' and renddracan 'courier' in the above sentence. So, it cannot be denied that changes occur continuously in language at every level, namely phonetics, phonology, grammar, and lexicon.
English fulfills the need for a global lingua franca for it has spread to large areas of the world due to colonisation and the widespread teaching of English as a foreign language, and has been used more widely in Europe due to the American and British victory in World War II, among other factors. Because of the use of English as a lingua franca in international trade and intercultural communication, native speakers of English are outnumbered by non-native speakers, which is a situation that is quite atypical for western European languages.[9] A consequence of this is a sense of ownership of the language which is shared by different communities. For instance, international communication via ELF has facilitated exchange between China and the rest of the world, thus sustaining international trade.[10] But once a language is appropriated by new communities, it is then adapted to their specific needs. Consequently, the English language is undergoing change, and this change is being brought about mostly by its non-native speakers.
ReplyDeleteThis modern rush of language evolution is not just a product of the 21st century – our language has been evolving like a speeding train ever since the invention of speeding trains! Many of English’s earlier imported influences were scientific terms from Latin and Greek, and science once again contributed to the evolution of the language with the first Industrial Revolution (in the 18th and 19th centuries). This Industrial Revolution was a period of relentless invention, much of it occurring in Britain, and the language of this period spread throughout the world via Britain’s trading network, the increased accessibility of worldwide travel and migration, and the sharing of literature through industrial printing presses, thus cementing the dominance of English in the world’s most powerful corridors.
2. There are several factors behind the language change. the cause of the change of a language comes both from internal, which is related to the nature of the language itself; and externally, caused by social and cultural changes in the speaking community. several causes of language change, namely: anatomy and 'ethnic character', climate and geography, substrata, functional needs, and convenience/simplicity. In tracing the development of English, basically it can be observed through three different periods.
ReplyDeleteAs generally happens in other languages in the world, changes in English include four things, namely (1) semantic changes, which are marked by the number of words that experience shifts in meaning and implications; (2) morphological, namely by the number of case endings and missing inflections; (3) phonetics, which is marked by the sharper difference between pronunciation and writing; and (4) syntax, namely with changes in the way words are combined into phrases or sentences. Morphological differences between Old English and Modern English are characterized by the presence of grammatical gender and a very complicated degree of inflection in nouns, adjectives, and demonstrative and interrogative pronouns.
3. The Old English period
ReplyDeleteIt has three subdivisions, prehistoric- between c.450- 650.Early Old English between c.650- 900 and Late Old English between c.900-1066. Old English was influenced by Latin, Norse and Celtic. Latin influenced it in three periods, firstly, when the Anglo-Saxons went to Britain, secondly when the Latin speaking priests converted the Anglo- Saxons to Christianity and lastly when the Normans conquered England in 1066. The second language influencing old English was Norse; it began with the Scandinavian words being introduced after the Vikings invaded England in the 9th and 10th centuries. Celtic’s major influence was mainly on syntax and not on vocabulary.
Old English was not a monolithic language; it had multiple variations in different regions. It had developed from languages and dialects of many different tribes; each dialect was spoken by independent kingdom. There were four main dialects, Mercian (dialect of Mercia), Kentish (dialect of Kent), West Saxon and Northumbrian (dialect of Northumbria). OE was mostly written using the Latin alphabet, supplemented by a few Germanic runic letters to represent sounds not found in Latin e.g. þ, which represented the th sounds in thin or this.
Middle English.
Between the 11th and 14th centuries, and which marked the transition to Middle English (ME) (conventionally dated c.1100-1500). Middle English was spoken during late 11th century to late 15th century. It developed from the Late Old English, which was spoken in Norman England.(1106-1154). Early Middle English developed from late Old English in the second half of 11th century. It was spoken during 12th and 13th centuries. By the second half of 14th century, it became popular as a literary language. Finally in the 15th century the Late Middle English started transitioning into Early Modern English.
Middle English gradually ended the Wessex, as the writing language and emerged as the focal language for writers and poets. Many regions had their own dialects and there were variety of different writing styles. It became more prominent in the 14th century, in the 12th and 13th century it was more Anglo-Norman. It had many dialects in different regions but during 15th century, printing began in England (1470) and the language started becoming more standardized.
Name : Rifal Nurkholis
ReplyDelete191240167
1. English is the lingua franca because English is the oldest language in the world and emerged around 8 AD. English also experienced rapid development so that it became an international language. Quoted by Wonderpolis, historians trace the origins of English to three Germanic tribes, namely: Angles, Saxons, and Rami who invaded Great Britain in the 5th centuryThe term lingua franca or “Frankish language” originates from the Middle Ages between the 15th and 19th century, where in the Mediterranean this term signified a pidgin based on Italian and French, which was developed by the traders and used for illegible communication. Languages such as Egyptian, Chinese, French, Greek, Latin, Hebrew, or Arabic all held a status of lingua franca in the past, acting as a contact language amongst people who did not share their first language. A language achieved such status either by military expansion, economic power (which is believed to be a major factor in English becoming the world’s lingua franca) or by religious power.
2. The factors that cause people to divide English into three stages are because of internal and external factors.
ReplyDeletea. Old English
The Old English (OE) period can be regarded as starting around AD 450, with the arrival of West Germanic settlers (Angles, Saxons and Jutes) in southern Britain. They brought with them dialects closely related to the continental language varieties which would produce modern German, Dutch and Frisian.
This Germanic basis for English can be seen in much of our everyday vocabulary – compare heart (OE heorte), come (OE cuman) and old (OE eald) with German Herz, kommen and alt.
Many grammatical features also date back to this time: irregular verbs such as drink ~ drank ~ drunk (OE drincan ~ dranc ~ (ge)druncen) parallel German trinken ~ trank ~ getrunken. Similarly, many OE pronunciations are preserved in modern spellings e.g. knight (OE cniht, German Knecht), in which k would have been pronounced and gh sounded like ch in Scots loch.
b. Middle English
In Middle English we see the influence of Old Norse and Norman French coming to the front. Perhaps one of the significant influences of Old Norse on English was on the syntax and grammatical ordering of words. Just as the Vikings colonised Britain, so too the patterns of English grammar have much to thank north Germanic tongues, like Danish or Icelandic.
In ME, changes in the pronunciation of unstressed syllables, mainly occurring at the ends of words, caused most inflections to merge indistinguishably, or be dropped altogether. This inflectional breakdown could have created ambiguity (e.g. wanted man find), but speakers compensated by using more rigid word order (subject – verb – object, usually), among other strategies.
C. Modern English: Modern English marks the structure of spelling and grammar, It is characterized by the increasing presence of vowels. English continued to evolve with the influence of Latin and Greek. Modern languages, such as French and Italian, have always influenced English, to the point that several writers attempted to launch a purification campaign in English, but to no avail. It wasn't until the late 18th century that the situation reversed and English took a bigger place in international business. And the expansion of the English language was marked by the colonization and growth of the British Empire. English extended to Ireland, where half the population at the end of the 18th century still spoke Irish. Today, 98% of Irish people speak English as their mother tongue. And until now modern English has become an international language that is used throughout the world as a lingua franca.
3. The differences between Old English and Middle English in terms of history are:
ReplyDelete• Old English (450 AD - 1100 AD / Middle 5th century to Mid-11th century) or commonly known as Anglo-Saxon is the language spoken by the Saxons, a nomadic tribe that often inhabited British lands. This language was spoken by the Saxons on British soil, until they were expelled by settlers from the Kingdom of Normandy who later founded the Kingdom of England. The expulsion of the Saxons from Britain was the end of the use of Old English in Britain, which was later replaced by French as the national language of the United Kingdom.
• Middle English (1100 AD-1500 AD / late 11th century to late 15th century) was the language spoken in parts of the British Empire where Saxon influence was very strong. Although their national language is French, many areas of the United Kingdom where the majority of the population are of Saxon descent speak this language. This language is a mixture of French and Old English.
Name : Ristikal Hayati
ReplyDelete191230168
English is the lingua franca because English is the oldest language in the world and emerged around 8 AD. English also experienced rapid development so that it became an international language. Quoted by Wonderpolis, historians trace the origins of English to three Germanic tribes, namely: Angles, Saxons, and Rami who invaded Great Britain in the 5th century. In fact, the people living in England at that time spoke Celtic language instead of English. Why English has become the world's lingua franca is due to the fact that is the common language or mode of communication that enables people to understand one another regardless of their cultural and ethnical backgrounds. It makes communication a lot easier and understanding one another has become efficient. If traced from its origin, Old English is basically a type of Germanic language which is one of the branches of the Indo-European language (Indo-European language). This Old English language was originally brought by explorers in the 5th century AD from northern Europe. this nation of explorers who lived on the mainland of England came to be known as the Anglo-Saxons.
2. A. Old English
ReplyDeleteOld English was spoken from mid 5th century to the mid-12th century. It was a West Germanic language of the 5th century. The origin of the old English started from ingvaeonic also called “Germanic of the North Sea”. Ingvaeonic was named after a West Germanic proto-tribe cultural group called Ingaevones. This language was a grouping of Old Frisian, Old Saxon and Old English. Later it developed into Anglo- Saxon language, the language spoken by people living in parts of modern England and Southeastern lands of Scotland. Anglo–Saxon was developed only after 7th century after Christianization. It was constantly influenced by many languages.
In vocabulary, Old English was very resourceful in the formation of words by means of prefixes and suffixes. It was possible to form more than a hundred words from the same roet. Some of the most commonly employed suffixes were – dom, -end, -ere, -nes, -ung, -scipe to form nouns, and –sun, -wis to form adjectives. This feature was most widely used to form verbs with about twelve common prefixes to form verbs: be-, for-, fore-, ge-, mis-, of-, on- etc. another notable feature was the large number of self explaining compounds, that is compounds of two or more native words whose meaning is self evident such as gimmwyrhta ( gem-worker) (geweller). This capacity for forming new words by combining the existing ones and by deriving them with the help of prefixes and suffixes gave a remarkable variety and flexibility to Old English. This is evident in its literature, which is distinguished for its poetry rich in synonyms and metaphors e.g. Beowulf.
B.Middle English
ReplyDeleteFive are generally recognized: Northern, Midland (East and West), South-Eastern and South-Western. Northern (derived from the OE Northumbrian dialect) stretched from the middle of Yorkshire to Scotland and so subsumed Scots, the English variety of the lowlands. Scots came to be used as a literary standard in Scotland from the late fourteenth century onwards, and has been especially noted as the medium for the work of the fifteenth-century ‘Chaucerian poets’ of the Scottish court. We will not pursue the history of Scots here, but the interested reader is referred to Barber (1993), Görlach (1991) and Wales (2002). As to the other dialects, South-Eastern derived from OE Kentish and South-Western from OE West Saxon. Mercian was the OE antecedent of Midland (stretching from London to Gloucestershire), which is traditionally separated into East Midland and West Midland. Fennell (2001: 109) also distinguishes a sixth dialect, East Anglian, stating that texts from that particular area show marked differences from its neighbouring East Midlands variety.
C. Modern english
Modern English or New English (New English) began with the Great Vowel Shift which made the English pronunciation system change significantly. Early 17th century texts, such as those by William Shakespeare and the King James Bible, use a vocabulary different from that of the earlier period of English. The vocabulary contained in the text is considered to be the beginning of the Modern English period
3. Old English
ReplyDeleteClassification:
Old English can further be classified into three more sub-divisions- Prehistoric, Early Old England, and Late Old English.
Period:
It is recorded in history that Old English was spoken from about the 5th century till around the 12th century.
Origin:
Old English is the earliest language recorded in history books to be ever spoken. We are still not sure how it came into being.
Word order:
The word order of old english was not fixed
Standardization:
Old English has never been standardized. Middle English was standardized ages after
Middle English
Classification:
Having developed from Late Old English, Middle English grew popular and soon people started to compose in Middle English. Later the Late Middle English came to be known as Early Modern English
Period:
Middle English came into being from the second half of the 11th century while the Old English was still in use till the last parts of the 15th century.
Origin:
Middle English came into being from the Late Old English after the occurrence of the conquest of the Normans.
Word order:
The word order of Middle English was almost fixed.
Standardization:
Middle English was standardized ages after its existence.
NAME : ADELIA BELA PERTIWI
ReplyDeleteCLASS : TBI 6B
NIM : 191230059
1.Psycholinguistics is the discipline that investigates and describes the psychological processes that make it possible for humans to master and use language. Psycholinguists conduct research on speech development and language development and how individuals of all ages comprehend and produce language.
2. Psycholinguistics is simply defined as the study of the relationship between human language and human mind (Maftoon and Shakouri, 2012). In short, three important processes are investigated in psycholinguistics: (1) language production, (2) language comprehension, and (3) language acquisition.
Listening, reading, speaking and writing are called as the four of language skills. Specifically, psycholinguistics helps to understand the difficulties of these four skills both intrinsic difficulties and extrinsic difficulties. Psycholinguistics also helps to explain the errors students do in the language learning.
3. Oral communication is communicating with spoken words. It's a verbal form of communication where you communicate your thoughts, present ideas and share information. Examples of oral communication are conversations with friends, family or colleagues, presentations and speeches.
4. Listening, reading, speaking and writing are called as the four of language skills. Specifically, psycholinguistics helps to understand the difficulties of these four skills both intrinsic difficulties and extrinsic difficulties. Psycholinguistics also helps to explain the errors students do in the language learning.